i LI BRARY OF CONGRE SS. 5 ^ 

J [SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.) 

♦united states Of AMERICA ♦. 

f ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ .^.A.>4i 



C 1 10^^ S 



GRAMMAR 



OF 



THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE 



on, 



M A PLAIN AND COiMPENDIOUS INTRODUCTION 



TO > 



THE STUDY OF ITALIAN. 



BY 



/ 



JAIMES PAUL COBBETT. 



LONDON: 

PRINTED TOR THE AUTHOR, AND PUBLISHED AT 183, FLEET-STREET. 

I 

-- isao. 



<^c ^^^^ 



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LONDON : 

HtlNTED BY MILLS, JOWETT, AND MILLS, 
DOLT'COVRT, FLLET-STREET 






DEDICATION. 



Q 

^ 

^ TO WILLIAM COBBETT, ESQUIRE. 



MY DRAR FATHER J 

Give me leave to dedicate to you the following little Work, 

if not as a sufficient return for all I have learned from you, by 

way of acknowledgment, at least, that it was you who inspired 

me to the undertaking; an acknowledgment which cannot be 

received by you with pleasure greater than that with which I 

ought to make it, seeing that it was you who enabled me to render 

what I offer to your notice so far worthy of that notice as it is, 

that I am making you a gift^ which should be accompanied by 

thanks from the giver, and asking your patronage for something 

which is, as it were, your own. 

If I had not read that Book, throughout which I have the 

honour of being addressed by you, it is not only unlikely that 

I should ever have thought of entering on the task which you here 

see completed, but I might, very possibly, now be in the same 

situation as those " many men** who, as mentioned in your 

English Grammar, " have been at Latin-Schools for years, 

and who, at last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly,** ^ 

To know that the three last of Grammars to be rivalled were 

vmtten by you ; to see you become so famous as the author of 

tJiem; to find myself, by their means, already known by name in 

every quarter of the civilized world : if tins be no t enough to give 

a2 



17 DEDICATION. 



Vie confidence of success in a path of literature in which you have 
gained so much fame, it may, surely, in some manner account for 
viy having ventured on the step to which I am invoking your pro- 
tection, a step lihich my natural ambition to imitate you has 
emboldened me to take. For me thus to celebrate your praise 
will hardly be thought ostentatious ; to refrain from so doing 
would, on the contrary, be only affectation, since I cannot help 
knowing that such praise is universally admitted to be your due ; 
and though, for myself, I can claim no merit further than that of 
having endeavoured to follow your cheering example, it wouUl be 
to oppose the dictates of my regard for you, and to refuse utters 
ance to thoughts the most agreeable that can occur to me, if I 
were, upon this occasion, not to express some of that pride which 
vuist be felt by the sqn of one by whom such an example has 
been set. 

That yon may long live to enjoy that great reputation which 
your talents and your never-ceasing application have obtained for 
you, and wfiich will cause the children of future ages to learn to 
associate your name with every sentiment of veneration, is, I have 
the happiness to be assured, the hope entertained, and the prayer 
offered up, 'by thousands ; while, to participate in that hope, and 
most fervently to join in that prayer , are the strongest of all the 
motives that animate the heart of 

My dear Father, 

Your affectionate Son, 

JAMES PAUL COBBETT. 

Kensington, April \7, 1830, 



PREFACE. 



As it may be considered, that evei*y one vvho writes a 
book should be prepared to give some reason beyond 
that of the common ambition to be read, for his seeking 
the attention which is the end of its being published, / 
will simply say, that I have found those books that I have 
met with, relating to the same subject as my own, either 
deficient in their contents, or so injudicious as to the 
choice of matter, and so confused in' its arrangement, 
as, in a great measure, to retard the pursuit which the 
makers of them intended to accelerate. Those which 
are deficient, are very much so, while those of the other 
class show more learning in the writers than they are 
calculated to impart to the readers 3 they are more volu- 
minous than luminous ', they are abundant in matter, but 
not clear in manner. Seeing this, therefore, and having 
failed, in many cases, to obtain the information which I 
expected to find in Italian Grammars, and naturally sup- 
posing that others must be subject to the same disap- 
pointment as myself, I have written this Grammar in the 
hope that it may give those who are beginning to study 
Italian the assistance they stand in need of towards ac- 
quiring a tolerable acquaintance with the rudiments of 
that language. How far I have accomplished my object, 
it will be for my readers to judge. Of one thing, however, 
they may be assured, which is, that if the information 

a 3 



iri PREFACE. 

required by them is not to be found in the source I offer, 
the source really containing that information has never yet 
been opened. I have not, I am aware, noticed every thinff 
that it might be useful to notice. Jiut I have had a double 
object in view — to say all that was essentially necessary, 
and, at the same time, to put what I had to say within 
the smallest possible compass; in attempting to do which 
I have, I trust, made my work such as to fulfil the 
promise of its title. 

The first Italian Grammar, at all worthy of being so 
called, that was used in England, was that of Vene- 
RONi originally written in French, and upwards of a 
century ago. Of this Grammar there have been, from 
time to time, many different translations into our lan- 
guage ; and Zotti's French-Italian Grammar is nothing 
more than the last edition of Venerom. Since the first 
appearance of Veneroni, the Italian Grammars that 
have been published, both in French and in English, are 
almost innumerable. It seems to have been a main 
endeavour with each subsequent Grammarian to expose 
and condemn the particular errors of his nearest prede- 
cessor. Thus, among the writers in French, Peretti 
attacks Venerom, Biagioli attacks Peretti, and 
Barberi, again, attacks Biagioli. Venerom, who has 
the merit of having led the way^ is criticised by those 
who have followed him in a manner the most unceremo- 
nious : not one of them acknowledges what he takes 
from Venerom ; while they all make common cause of 
complaint that he has not given enough to borrow from. 
The Italian Grammars of Toriano and Altieri are, I 
believe, the first that were published originally in our 
language. Latterly came the English " Lectures" of 



PREFACE. V^ 

SiGNOR Galhjnani, wlio, and whose Editor, Dr. Mon- 
Tucci, have composed a work to teach us Italian (" vnth 
ease and facility" and ^^ without the help of any master'^) 
which, though it shows research in its compilers, insures 
infinite perplexity to its readers. My experience of 
grammars in general is such, that I look for negative 
more than for positive merit in them. If asked which I 
consider the hest Italian Grammar, my answer would be : 
" The shortest is the best ; for, the one that has the 
" least to say about the matter will do the least towards 
" making you abandon the study altogether." The little 
French works of Polidori and Vergani are the best of 
their kind. These do not, to be sure, guide you far ; 
but they are useful as far as they go, and do not lead 
you into darkness by unsatisfactory explanations. 

I have written rather as a learner than as a professor. 
I do not pretend to have made neiu discoveries, to have 
found out what other grammarians did not know before. 
But the thorough understanding of the matter, and the 
making it equally well understood by others, are two dif- 
ferent things ; and the latter of these is a thing in which 
I, as a learner, have found every grammarian deficient. 
It is not of any particular work that I complain y I find 
one great fault in them all : it is the want of clearness, the 
want of reasons and explanations. In this consists the 
only fault that I need point out in any one ; but from 
this, important as it is, there is not one that is free. 
Where there is such a multiplicity of points to be no- 
ticed, the arrangement of the several matters is a thing of 
the greatest importance ; and to this I have paid parti- 
cular attention. 1 have taken care to introduce no grants 
matical term, without, at the same time, explaining the 



Fill r RET ACE. 

meaning of it. I have, I believe, passed over hardly any 
of those difliculties to which a learner is sure to be sub- 
ject. Where pri7ici})le is concerned, I have studied to give 
the clearest possible explanation ; and in those cases where 
the difference between the two languages consists in mere 
matters of practice, for which it would be difficult to 
account by any reasoning, I have forewarned the learner 
of what he niav have to meet with : to know what our 
difficulties are, and where they lie, is partly to overcome 
them. 

Although I am not, as will be perceived, a compiler, 
or collector of materials from books already written, I 
do not, at the same time, wish to be regarded as having 
received no assistance from those who have preceded me. 
There is no grammar, perhaps, to which I am not indebted 
for something. There are two works which I think it but 
justice ])articularly to name. The first is that of Signor 
Galignani: the Lectures of this gentleman are abstruse; 
but they have, nevertheless, a vast deal of good matter in 
them. The other is the large French work of Signor 
Barberf, called " Grammaire desGrammaires Italiennes," 
In this grammar there is an use of neiu names, which, in 
my o])inion, tends rather to confusion than otherwise. 
But I have learned a great deal from Signor Barberi ; 
he is a very able grammarian ; and his performance, which 
is most elaborate, does him the highest credit. 

It will be perceived that I have given no Exercises in 
this work. The proper use of Exercises, is, to put the 
learner's memory of rules and principles to the proof. 
But it too frequently happens that the exercise is per- 
formed without the reasons for its correctness or incor- 
rectness ever being understood by the person that has 



rilEFACE. IX 

performed it: the pupil does the exercise^ and the teacher 
looks over and corrects it; and, badly as it may be done, 
the pupil cannot help thinking that, when he has " done his 
exercise,'' he has learned all that part of the grammar to 
which it relates, though, as is commonly the case, he does 
not really know one word about the matter. Exercises 
may, therefore, if not properly used, not only be of no 
benefit, but rather tend to injury. There are some. I 
know, that think the whole subject is best taught by the 
means of exercises. This is a most pernicious notion ; 
and the system founded on it is worthy of none but the 
teachers of parrots. If exercises are nothing more than 
putting the language into practice, then every word you 
read, and every word you write or say, is, in fact, an exeV" 
cise. But if they mean, as a part of the grammar, some- 
thing by which to show that you understand the 7'ules 
and principles you have been reading about, these rules 
and principles should be first thoroughly comprehended, 
or the materials for making the exercise may just as well 
not have been in your book. In the title-page of a French- 
man's grammar I once read the following motto, taken 
from Quintilian : Iter hr eve est per exemflvm, longum 
per pR^cEP'i'A ; By example, the way is short, by 'precept 
long. I found that the contents of the book were just what 
might be expected to come after such a motto, and that 
the author of it had taken the words of his authority in 
at least their largest sense. It was a book consisting, 
almost entirely, of examples and exercises. Such a work 
should not be called a Grammar. However, while I think 
that exercises do not properly form any part of a Gram- 
mar, I am far from thinking that they are of no use. I 
am of opinion, that if they be well selected, and made 



7L PREFACE. 

Strictly to apply to the rules, they may he of much assist- 
ance. And I propose, therefore, in addition to the abun- 
dance of examples tliat I have already given, to publish 
a little hook of Exkrcises, which, as they will refer to its 
different chapters or paragraphs, will form a proper 
appendix to this Grammar. 

In conclusion, I will say a few words in the way 
of advice to the reader. I will take it for granted, 
that he does not expect to gain a knowledge of a 
language without studying its (jrammur. The science 
of grammar is, it is true, one not very easy to be clearly 
expounded ; and the far greater part of those who call 
themselves grammarians have presented the matter to our 
understandings in a shape that is any thing but inviting. 
Grammars have been found so difficult to understand, 
and have been the means of disgusting so many with the 
pursuit, that learners have become quite captivated with 
the invention of modern teachers who pretend to have 
found out a method of teaching languages, the prin- 
cipal recommendation of whicli is that no f/rammar is to 
be used ! This invention is nothing but a mischievous 
deceit ; it is a mere mockery of learning. The truth is, 
that if we do not have recourse to such books as require 
some of the labour of thought, and teach us to under- 
stand by the means of our reason, we must learn as mere 
babies do ; and if we learn any thing, our knowledge can 
be the result of long habit only, and it must be purchased 
at an enormous expense of time. Now, it is to render 
unnecessary this long habit, it is to save this enormous 
expense of time, that the grammar is intended. The 
right use of the grammar, of a book really deserving 
that title, is to teach us, in one day, that which would, 



PREPACE. XI 

without It, require years. It is, therefore, to the grammar 
that the student must give his attention. If he make 
himself perfectly master, or nearly so, of this, the rest of 
his path will he all smooth, and he will meet with nothing 
beyond to check his progress for a moment ; while, on 
the contrary, if this be neglected, not only will he be 
unable to use the words of his new language correctly, huts 
he must be constantly liable to misunderstand the meaning 
of them as used by others. Next in importance to the 
well understanding of the rules and principles contained 
in the grammar, comes all that part of the study which 
may be called exercise ; that is_, the reading of Italian 
books, or the translating of the one language into the other. 
As a book for beginners to read, or to translate from Ita- 
lian into English, there is one that I think it useful to 
mention; it is the Comedies of Goldoni, the style of which 
is at once .easy and abounding in such expressions as are 
peculiar to the beautiful language in which they are writ- 
ten. In making translations, the Italian should be first 
copied on one side of the paper, the English to be written 
on the other. Not a single phrase or word ought to be 
passed by, without the learner being satisfied that he 
knows the real meaning of it, and that he has put that 
meaning into his translation ; there is nothing, the gram- 
'mar itself alone excepted, of so much benefit as this rigid 
translating. It obliges us to be scrupulous in searching 
for the true sense of the words, prevents us from being too 
much in a hurry to decide as to the meaning, and, when 
once clearly understood, plants it firmly in the memory. 
One single page of translation thus made, will do more 
than fifty pages of hasty reading ; no one that has not 



Jin 



PREFACE. 



tried it can have any idea of its usefulness ; and I may 
venture to say, that all those who shall follow my advice 
in this respect, will acknowledge, from experience, that 
I have not given it without good reason. 



JAMES P. COBBETT. 



CONTENTS. 



The references in this Table of Contents are made to paragraphs and 
not to pages ; and, it will be .observed, thut each Chapter is referred to 
under the number of the paragraph with which such Cliapter begins. 

Chapter. Paragraph. 

I, Of Grammar in general ; of its Branches ; and of the 

diiFerent Parts of Speech 1 

11. Of Orthography ^... 4 

IIL Of Prosody ..., 8 

The Accents ..,, , , , 9 

The Mark of Elision 13 

IV. Of Etymology in General 17 

V. Etymology of Articles 18 

VI. Etymology of Nouns ". 21 

The Gender of Nonns 22 

The Number of Nouns 28 

The Article as employed with the Nouns 29 

VII. Etymology of Pronouns S5 

Personal Pronouns S6 

Possessire Pronouns 43 

Relative Pronouns ^. ib. 

Demonstrative Pronouns 44 

Interrogative Pronouns 45 

Indeterminate Pronouns 46 

VIII. Etymology of Adjectives 47 

The Gender of Adjectives 48 

The Number of Adjectives 49 

Adjectives of Number and Numerical Order 51 

The Degrees of Adjectives 53 

IX, Of Augmentatives and Diminutives .t ,.,».*»....... .. 55 



Xiv CONTENTS, 

Chapter. Para^apfi. 
IX. Etymology of Verbs 66 

The Regtilarity or Irregtilarity of Ver'bs 59 

Conjugations of the two Auxiliary Verbs (see pages 

from 80 to 83). 

The Three Conjugations of Regular Verbs (see 

pages from 81 to 90). 

List of the Irregular Verbs 6i 

Verbs Defective 66 

Observations relating to the Conjugations C8 

X. Etymology of Adverbs 69 

XI. Etymology of Prepositions 70 

XII. Etymology of Conjunctions 71 

XIII. Etymology of Interjections 72 

XIV. Of Increase and Diminution in ^ords 73 

Increase in Words 74 

Diminution in Words , ... 75 

XV. Of Syntax in General 85 

XVI. Syntax of Articles 86 

Of the Definite Article 87 

Of the Indefinite Article 104 

XVII. Syntax of Nouns 112 

XVIII. Syntax of Pronouns 116 

Of Personal Pronouns 117 

Conj unctive Pronouns 127 

Of Possessive Pronouns 129 

Of Relative Pronouns 148 

Of Demonstrative Pronouns 151 

Of Interrogative Pronouns 1 52 

Of Indeterminate Pronouns 153 

XIX. Syntax of Adjectives 157 

Agreement of the Adjective with the Noun. ib. 

Of Comparison 159 

Of the words si, cosi, come, tanto, cotanto, quanta, 

altrettanto, alquanto, molto, troppo, poco 178 

Of the placing of the Adjective 180 

XX, Syntax of Verbs 181 

l9t. Of the Mod ........•.£«........ 1B3 



CONTENTS. Xr 

Chapter. Paragraph. 
2d. Of the Time 220 

3d, Of the Number -and Person 231 

4th. Of the Participle 243 

The Active Participle , , 244 

The Passive Participle ^ 252 

5th. Of the Sort of the Verb 256 

Of the use otAvere and Essere as Auxiliaries 269 

Of Case, and of the Governing of Cases 277 

Syntax of Negatives 290 

Syntax of Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions 302 

1st. Of Adverbs 303 

2d, Of Prepositions 307 

Sd. Of Conjunctions 317 

XXV. Of the Words called Expletives 319 

XXVI. Of Collocation 324 




ERRATA. 

In page 20, line 16, for two g^s have read one g has, '^ 

In page 31, line 4, for merely read namely. 

In page 39, line 32, for milla read mila* 

In page 45, line 2, for il angelo, it elmo, &c. read lo angelo, lo elmo, &c. 

In page 49, line 12, for or, te^ or ti, read a te, or tu 

In page 55, line 27, for havcd used read have used, " 



^.V EXPLANATORY LIST 



OF THE 



ABBREVIATED NAMES OF Al TIIORS AND THEIR \VORKS, 
QUOTED JN THE FOLLOWING GRAMMAR. 



Alp. T. Alfieri, Tragedia. jG.ViL. S. 

V. , Viu. Mac.C. 

Ari. O. F. Aiiosto, Orlando Furioso. D. 

Ban. N. Baiidello, Novella. P. 

Bec.D.cP. Boccaria, Delittie Pene. R. 

S. , Dello Stile. S. 

Ben. L. Bentivoglio, Lettere. 

Boc. D. Boccaccio, Decamerone. Maf. M. 

F. • jFiameta. Met. O. 

A. ,AHieto. MuB, A. 

Boj. O. I. Bojardo, Orlando Innamorato. W- Vil. S 

Car. E. Caro, Eneide, Nov. Ant. 

Cas. A. P. Casti, Animali Parlanti. Pan. G. F. 
D. Cas. G. Delia Casa, Galateo. 

Dan. In. Dante, Inrerno. Pet. C. 

Par. ,Paradiso. S. 

PtB. jPurgatorio. T. 

Dav. S. Davila, Storia., Pol. S. 

Fio. N. Fiorentino, NoTella. Red. B. T. 

Gal. L. Galilei, Lettera. Sac. N. 

GiA. S. Giannone, Storia. ' R, 

GoL. C. Goldoni, Coramedia. Soa. N. 

G.Goz.N. Gasparo Gozzi, Novella. Tas. G. L. 
Gba. P. F. Guarini, Pastor Fido. 
Qui. S. Gai«ciardinj, Storia. A. 

N 



Giovanni YiUani, Storia. 
Macchiavelli, Commedia. 

, Discorsi. 

, Ptincipe. 

, Rime. 

• , Storie Fioren- 

tine. 
MaflTei, Merope. 
Metastasio, OperA. 
Maratori, Annali. 
Matteo Villani, Storia. 
Novel le Antiche. 
Paodolfini, Governo delta 

Famiglia. 
Petrarca, Canzone. 

, Sonetto. 

, Trionfi. 

Poliziano, Stanze. 
Redi, Bacco in Totcana. 
Francesco Sachelti, Novella 

, Rime. 

Soare, Novella. 
Tasso, Gerasalemme Libe* 
rata. 

. Aminta. 



CHAPTER I. 



Of Grammar in general; of its Branches ; and of the different 

Parts of Speech. 

1 . GRAMMAR has been defined as " a Science which teaches 
" us how to make use of words in a proper manner.'* 

2. In Grammar there are four Branches, or Divisions ; 
namely. Orthography, Prosody, Etymology, and Syntax. 
These terms come, originally, from the Greek ; and we, in our 
language get them immediately from the Latin, in which 
they are called Orthographia, Prosodia, Etymologia, and 
Syntaxis. The peculiar nature of each of these Branches will 
be described further on, under the title by which each Branch 
will be distinguished from the rest. 

3. Words, or, as the grammarians term them, the Parts of 
Speech, are commonly arranged in nine separate classes, and, 
so arranged, are named as follows ; 



In English. 

Article, 

Noun, 

Pronoun, 

Adjective, 

Verb, 

Adverb, 

Preposition, 

Conjunction, 

Interjection. 



In Italian. 

Articolo, 

Nome, 

Pronome, 

Addiettivo, 

Verbo, 

Avverbio, 

Preposizione, 

Congiunzione. 

Interjezione . 



B 



2 DEFINITION OP THn [Chap. 

Definition of the Parts of Speech. 

ARTICLES. — The words in our language that come under 
this denomination are, the, a, and an; and there are no more. 
The reason for which this sort of word is called Article^ it 
would, perhaps, be difficult to give very clearly. We get the 
term from the Latin, in which language it has just as great a 
variety of significations as it has in English. In Latin this 
sort of word i^ called articulus, which means, in the most ge- 
neral and literal sense of the term, s. small body, or a small part 
or member of a body ; because it is what is called a diminutive 
of the Latin word artus, which means a body or a part or 
member of a body. Thus we say, an article in a newspaper, 
meaning an individual minute matter in a newspaper, or a 
small part of it as a collective mass ; and an article of faith, 
meaning one of the things we believe in, or a part of the whole 
substance of our behef. In the same sense we use the word 
articulate, when we say a word is articulated ; for to articulate 
means to pronounce distinctly every syllable of a word, or all 
the minute parts which are contained in a word. To say that 
these words are called articles because they are small, would be 
but a very insufficient reason ; for there are many words of 
other Parts of Speech quite as small. But we may say, that 
they are thus called because they are parts, or little parts, of 
other words, since it is only when they are employed imme- 
diately before some noun that articles can have any sense. 
Neither of the words the, a, and an, can mean any thing of 
themselves alone; they must have something else immediately 
affixed to them, or they can convey no sense. Thus, the 
man, a tree, an hour : here the articles may be said to be a 
part of the words man, tree, hour, inasmuch as it is absolutely 
necessary that they should be joined to nouns in this manner 
for them to be made use of at all. There are, properly 
speaking, but two Articles in our language ; for we know that, 
in sense, the an is the same as the a, and that a is made to be- 
come an before certain words merely for the sake of sound. 
In Italian it is just the same, to a certain degree : in that lan- 
guage the sense of an article must always be the same as that 
of one or the other of our words the, a, an. But we shall see. 



I.] PARTS OP SPEECH. 3 

further on, that in their articles the Italians express something 
in addition to what we do in ours, and that, in order to do this, 
their articles have to undergo a variety of changes in the 
spelling, of which changes there is nothing in our words of 
this class, except the one change of a to an, 

NOUNS. — The word Noun (from the Latin, in which it is 
called nomen) means name. So nouns are the names of things, 
of all things, whether corporeal or merely ideal; as, man, 
tree, house, earth, sky, fire ; these are all Nouns : also, virtue, 
vice, truth, policy, wisdom, thought, misery, distress, are all 
Nouns. Nouns are of two species; namely. Nouns Proper, 
and Nouns Common : Nouns Proper are those names which are 
appropriated to individuals, as the names of persons and places, 
such as John, Thomas, London, Paris, and the like. Nouns 
Common are those which represent the one general kind to 
which many individuals may belong ; such as man, town. 

PRONOUNS. — This word is composed of the two Latin 
words pro and nom^n, which mean /or and womw ; from which we 
understand that pronouns are words which stand for, or in the 
place of, nouns. So, when we say, ''where is Thomas" ? and 
it is answered, " £fe is gone" ; here the Pronoun ''he" stands 
for, or in t lie place of, the noun Thomas. " The trees are very 
strong, and they are making shoots ": here the "they" stands 
for the noun trees. *' The wheat is very fine, and it is fit to 
cut " : here the ** it " stands for the noun wheat. For, what 
is meaned in the sentences, is, Thomas is gone, the trees are 
making shoots, the wheat is fit to cut. 

ADJECTIVES. — The word Adjective is derived from one 
or other of the Latin verbs adjicio, to add to, or adjungo, to 
join to. In Latin it is called ce^Vc^ivM?^, or adjunctivum, the 
former meaning something having the power to add to, and the 
latter, something having the power to join to. The difiference 
between the sense of the two terms is but little, as far as we 
have here to do with them ; and, in English, we might with 
equal propriety call this Part of Speech an Adjective or an 
Adjunctive ; for its power is, as the Latin words, from one or 

B 2 



4 DEFINITION OP THE [Chap. 

the other of which it is derived, import, that of adding or 
joining pomcthinp to nouns and pronoun? : and what it is in- 
tended to add or join, is, the expression of some quality belong- 
ing to, or something that chorac^rizcs , the person or thing 
wliich is represented by the noun or pronoun. Thus : 
young man, tall tree, white house, clear sky, real virtue, bad 
pohcy, s;reat misery, he is rich, she is leandsomc, we are jwr ; 
where we see that the Adjectives, young, tall, white, clear, 
real, bad, great, rich, handsome, poor, express some qualities 
or characteristics of the persons or things which are 
racaned to be understood by the nouus and pronouns, man, 
free, house, sky, &c. The generahty of grammarians rank 
both Nouns and Adjectives under one common head, calling 
them all Nouns. And then they distinguish the two 
in this way : those which I have described as nouns, that 
i?, the names of things, they call Substantive Nouns; those 
which I have described as Adjectives, they call Adjective 
Novns. Substantive Nouns are so called from the Latin word 
sttbstantivus, which, as a grammatical term, means something ' 
which may stand alone or by itself, or which depends only on itself. 
So when I say, " This is a tree," the word tree expresses, in itself, 
and wants no other word added to it to express, the thing the 
existence of which I am describing; and if I say, "This is a 
tall tree," I only add the expression of something further, 
without that additional expression being at all necessary to 
make sense of the sentence. But it is not so with the Adjec- 
tive ; fpr therje is no way in which I could use this word tall, for 
example, without at the same time employing, oi leaving to 
be understood, some noim or pronoun. These have been called 
Adjective Nouns, because they must be added or joined to 
Substantive Nouns ; yet that is by no means a reason why 
thev should be ranked under the head of nouns or names, since 
they can, in fact, when standing alone, be the name of nothing. 
However, it is not of much consequence by what nam£ we call 
them, so that we understand their use. 

VERBS. — Verbs express all the diflferent movements or actions 
of creatures or things. To walk, to speak, to grow, to sink, to 
rise, to work, and the like. In the words here instanced there is 



I.] PARTS OP SPEECH. 5 

the expression of sofne movement either visible or understood. 
To love, to hate, to think, to grieve, to consider, to remember, to 
understand, to esteem, here the action is not so perceptible ; 
yet these all denote some movement in the mind. But to be, 
to sit, to lie, to live, to rest, to stand, to subsist, to .^f^ay,' to rc- 
main, to reside, to dwell: none of these, nor some others that 
might be added, express or imply any action or movement 
whatever, either bodily or mental. Verbs, then, are employed 
to express, not only the actions and movements, but also all 
the states and manners of being, of creatures and things. To 
loalk expresses an action which may be evident to the senses ; 
to love expresses an action of the mind; to be expresses existence 
in the most general sense ; and to lie, to stand, to stai/, and such 
like, express diiFerent states or manners of being. — We derive the 
name of Vei^b from the Latin, in which it is called verbmn, 
which means, literally translated, word. Grammarians have 
been at a loss for some term that should comprise, within itself, 
sufficient meaning to express the peculiar nature of this most 
important Part of Speech; and they have considered it to ' 
deserve the appellation of word emphatically, and, as the French 
say, par excellence. And fully deserving it is of this its striking 
title ; for, the Verb is the very soul of a sentence ; we can 
utter nothing, we can iise no phrase, no single word, to have a 
complete meaning, without, at the same time, employing some 
Verb, or, without there being the sense of some Verb left to be 
understood. We cannot possibly use any word, or words, to 
have any meaning, without intending our speech to express 
the doing of something, or the being of something in some 
sort of way : some act, or some state of existence, either 
bodily or mental. The bare little Interjection, Eh ?, for in- 
stance, when we use it in an interrogative way : this little word 
means something, it is not used without being intended to con- 
vey some sense ; and yet we frequently use it without using 
any other wofd along with it. What we mean to be understood by 
this little word, is, " What do you say ?" " What is it ?" or 
some such sense. When we*use the Interjections Ah ! Alas ! 
Poh ! these, though each be used unconnected v/ith any other 
word, have, each of them, a meaning ; but, not without the 
^ense of some other word or words being, at the same time,. 



G DEFINITION OF THK [Chap. 

understood. Ah ! gives us to understand that there exists sur- 
prise, or some other sudden emotion, in the mind : Alas ! is 
tantamount to saying " I am sad," or " I grieve," or something 
of that sort : Pah ! means the same as " I have a contempt for 
you", " You talk nonsense", or some other scornful or deriding 
expression like these. If you ask me, " Is he gone," and I answer 
by merely saying " Ves " here I leave a verb to be understood ; 
for, what I mean is, "He is gone." Such is the grammatical 
omnipresence of the Vei'b ! And we shall see, when we come to 
the Syntax of Verbs, that, to become well acqiiainted with the 
functions of this Part of Speech, as it is employed with the 
other Parts of Speech in sentences, is to conquer the far 
grater part of the difficulties that we find in the study of 
Grammar. 

ADVERBS. — Adverbs (from the Latin, Adverhium) are so 
called, because thev are words added to verbs ; and thev are in- 
tended to express some modification, or some accidental pecu- 
liarity, in the sense of verbs, in the different instances in which 
the verbs are used. So, when I say " There is only one man 
here who knows him" ; the employment of the adverb only, in 
this instance, modifies the sense of the verb, by restricting it to 
the one, the single man ; for, otherwise, if the adverb had not 
been employed, the sentence, "There is one man here who 
knows him," would not have anv thino: in it which would con- 
fine the knowledge to the one alone. " This is indeed an honest 
man" : here is, in this word, indeed, which is an Adverb, some- 
thing that the use of the verb without it could not express. 
"I do not think Thomas is gone": here the force of the 
Adverb not is such, that the omission of it would make the sen- 
tence convey a sense directly opposite to that which is intended. 
" He will arrive soon " : here we are not only told that he will 
arrive, but the Adverb of time gives us the additional informa- 
tion that the arrival is to take place in a short time. It is not, 
however, verbs, merely, to which these words are added, or 
that they are intended to modify the sense of; for they are, 
perhaps, as often added to adjectives as to verbs. He writes a 
very good hand " : here the use of the Adverb very is to ex- 
press the degree of goodness in the hand-wTiting, and modifies 



I:] PARTS OP SPEECH. 7 

the sense of the adjective good, and not that of the verb to 
write. — ^There are several classes of Adverbs; oi time, of place, 
o{ manner, &c. These will be noticed particularly, and enumerat- 
ed, when we come to the Etymology of this Part of Speech. 

PREPOSITIONS.— This class of words are thus called from 
their being placed immediately before nouns or pronouns . In Latin 
this Part of Speech is called prcepositio, which is a compound of 
the two words prcE, before, ondpositio, a position or situation. But 
in this term Preposition there is, as in those apphed to some of 
the other Parts of Speech, not much to enlighten us. For, if 
these words are called Prepositions because they are placed before 
nouns or pronouns, why should not Articles, which are placed 

' in the same situation, have the same appellation? Nevertheless, 
their nature is not inexplicable, however ill calculated their 
name may be to explain it. Prepositions are words which are 
made use of to express the relations or bearings which things 
represented by nouns and pronouns have as to one another, 
or, the situations in which things represented by nouns and 
pronouns exist with respect to one another. Now, when 
I say **The man is walking to your housb"; here the 
Preposition to expresses the precise situation, the manner of 
being, of the man in reference to the house, and defines a spe- 
cies of relation which the one has to the other. Leave out 
the Preposition to, in the above sentence, and we may put in 
its place any one of many other Prepositions, as, in, into, from, 

« before, behind, without, against, about, through : by each of which 
the sense of this sentence would be made different, and yet it 
would be a complete sense with either. — The proper use of these 
little words is of great importance. There is a great deal of 
difference between the manner in which they are employed in 
foreign languages and that in which we employ them ; and this 
we shall have to notice more particularly when we come to the 
Svntax. 

CONJUNCTIONS.— In Latin this Part of Speech is called 
conjunctio, which means a joining together, or a bond or knot : 
the name comes from the verb conjungo, which means to Join 



8 DEFINITION or THE [Chap. 

or couple with, to associate with ; con having tlie same meaning as 
our preposition with, and jungo, which is a verb of itself, that 
of our verb to join. Wlien we say, '* I am going, and so are 
" you," *' He is learned but not wise," " The plants cannot 
" grow, for it is too cold," " I do not like him, because he i? 
*• dishonest" : here it is evident that the office of these Conjunc- 
tions and, but, for, because, is that of Joining or connecting with 
one another the two members of each of the sentences, " lam 
going — so are you," &c. In some instances, as in all of the 
above examples, it is optional to use the Conjunction, or to 
leave it to be understood. But in other instances the sense of 
the whole sentence would be incomplete without it. For ex- 
ample ; " You will see him if you go," " It may be learned, 
notwithstanding it is difficult." In these, and many other in- 
stances that might be given, we are obliged to use the Con- 
junction, or the sense t)f the one member of the sentence, 
which is dependent upon that of the other, cannot be at all 
understood. — Here it may be observed, that Conjunctions, like 
Adverbs and Prepositions, consist not ^Iways of one single 
word, but are very frequently compounds of two or three different 
words, which are either all joined together so as to form one word 
in spelling, or all contribute, though not joined in one word, to 
convey a single idea. So it is in the compound Conjunction, 
notwithstanding, where we recognize, joined in one, three words 
that belong, in their indi\'idual capacit}% each to a different 
Part of Speech ; not being an Adverb, with a Preposition, 
standing a part of a Verb. " I will tell them of it, in case they 
come : " here the two separate words, in and case, the former 
a Preposition, the latter a Noun, have, as here employed, just 
the same sense as the Conjunction if. It is thus also with 
t"he Adverbs ; as, evermore, whensoever, and, by and by, at last, 
at furthest, &c. So also, with the Prepositions ; as, within, 
without, throughout, and, in front of, a top of, opposite to, over 
against, &c. — There is one thing more that it is necessary to take 
notice of with regard to these three Parts of Speech, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, and Conjunctions ; namely, the circulnstance of 
the same words belonging, according to the manner in which 
they are employed, to more than one of, or to 'all of, these 
Parts of Speech. . For example, when I say "The tree stands 



I.] PARTS OP SPEECH. 9- 

before the house," meaning opposite to the house, the word 
before is a Preposition, signifying the peculiarity of place or 
local situation; and when I say " He came ip/bre I entered," mean- 
ing, sooner than I entered, the same word is an Adverb of time. 
" I will not go, ivithout you go too ; " h.QYe witJioui is a Conjunc- 
tion. " The horse is without the stable," meaning on the outside 
of : here it is a Preposition. " He walks without in the open 
air "; here it is an Adverb descriptive of a local peculiarity in the 
walking. Tliis changing in the sense of the word according to 
the way in which it is employed, is not, however, confined to 
these three Parts of Speech. The word round, for example, 
belongs to no less than five Parts of Speech. When we say a 
thing is round, meaning circular, it is an Adjective : when we say, 
a round, meaning a revolution or rotation, it is a Noun; when v» e 
say to roMMc? a thing, meaning to make it circular in form, it is a 
Verb ; when we say, he looks round and round to find them, 
meaning in a circular direction, it is an Adv^erb; when we say, 
he walks round the house, meaning circularly about, it is a Pre- 
position. Tliere is no difficulty in discovering when the word 
is a Noun, an Adjective, or a Verb, in such cases ; but, when 
the word is of one of the three classes. Adverb, Preposition, 
or Conjunction, we are at a loss, sometimes, to decide to which 
of them it belonsrs. 

i? 

INTERJECTIONS.— These are so called, from the Latin 
Verb interjicio, which means to throw or jjlace between or among ; 
and in Latin they are called Interjectio, me-^ning a word thrown 
or placed between or among other words. There are so few of 
them in any language, and we aU know the use of them so well, 
that .to say any thing further in definition of them would be 
useless. They might, perhaps, with more propriety, be called 
exclamations ; for they are nothing more. Oh ! Alas .' Poh ! 
Ah ! Pshaw-! La ! Ha ! Eh ! Heigh ! He ! Heigho ! : these, 
and a few others that we have, are what are called Inter- 
Jectiotis. 



B 5 



10 or ORTHOORAPHr. 



CHAPTi:il II. 

0/ Orthography. 

4. Under this head it will not be necessary to say much. 
Orthography relates merely to spcUing, and is that Branch 
of Grammar which teaches us what letters we are to employ in 
the forming of words. We learn the Orthography of our native 
tongue from spelling-books, which are very necessary for those 
who have learned to speak a langiaage and to understand its 
sounds before they know any thing about reading or writing it. 
But here we can have but little to do with Orthography, as a 
branch of Grammar to be studied. Tliere is one thing, how- 
ever, relating to spelling, which, in speaking of the Italian lan- 
guage, it will be proper to notice, and in noticing that I shall 
quit the subject. Tliere is a great difference between the mode of 
spelling to be found in ancient authors, and that in modem 
ones, and a great difference, in this respect, between writings 
in prose and writings in verse, both ancient and modern. For 
example, we find in ancient prose writers the word virtil, 
virtue, spelled virtude and virtute ; the word stato, been, suto. 
Tliese I mention only as some out of hundreds of instances that 
could be given : to go further into the matter would merely tend 
to delay the beginnev, and to treat of it at large would require 
a large volume on this Branch of grammar alone. Tlie words 
virtude and virtute, like others of similar spelling, are now- 
discarded as obsolete, by persons in conversation, and by mo- 
dern prose writers ; and yet poets of the present day are li- 
censed in using them. In some cases, again, words which 
•used, of old, to be employed by the poets, have been discarded 
by the poets of latter ages, being considered as inelegant. For 
example, the words madre, a mother, opera, a work, mosso, 
moved, fcce, he did, ho, I have, ha, he has, ebbe, he had, avro, 
I shall have, sono, they are; these words may be found in 
ancient authors written mdtre, ovra, muto, ftnne, haggio. 



Chap.] OP orvYHOGRAPHT, 11 

have, Mhbe, haraggio, cnno. These ancient forms of spelling 
would not only not be adopted in prose now-a-days, but 
would be rejected even by the poets. But, though modern 
taste in Orthography has, in some degree, altered the spelling of 
even the poets, it is still not the same thing to be able to read 
modern Italian prose and to be able to read modern Italian 
verse ; for the poets have great license allowed them in changing 
the spelling of words. Here we find much difference between 
the Itahan and the French. A person who can perfectly un- 
derstand any French prose- writer, may understand, quite as 
well, any French writer in verse, as far as relates merely to the 
construction of letters, or speUing. There is, certainly, some 
license allowed to the French poets, as there is to poets 
in all languages ; but, in the French, this does not affect the 
Orthography : in the Orthography of his language a French 
poet can never deviate from his spelling-book ; and, if he would 
imitate the strains of Virgil or Horace, his spelling must still 
be the same as if he were writing in prose about the ploughing 
and sowing of land, or about any one of the most ordinary 
matters of life. The great reputation that the Italian has for 
its softness has induced many of those who are not acquainted 
with it to suppose, that it must have much monotony of sound, 
and that, as far as sound goes, it is rather a weak language. It 
is supposed that every word in Italian must terminate in a 
vowel, and, as every final letter must be distinctly pronounced, 
that the -language has more of softness in it than is compatible 
with strength. But this is not the case ; for, even in prose and 
conversation, there are great numbers of words wherein the 
final vowel may, with propriety, be omitted; the infinitives 
of verbs without exception, and, in many cases, other parts of 
the verbs, besides a great number of nouns, pronouns, ad- 
jectives, and other Parts of Speech. As, for example, forir, 
to blossom ; fioriscon, they blossom ; Jior, a flower ; lor, their ; 
piacevol, pleasant; heuy well: these words, spelled in full, 
would be fiorirey fioriscono, jiore, loro, piacevole, bene. Yet they 
might, in prose as well as poetry, be written without 
the final vowel, and might be pronounced so in conversa- 
tion. But I shall, further on (see paragraph 173), devote a 



12 OF riiosoDV. [Chap 

whole chapter to this, matter, and show what words are capa- 
ble of retrenchment in this way, and what not. 



Thr Alphabet. 

5. ITie Italian Alphabet consists of the following twenty-two 
letters. 

A a, ah, M m, <mmny. 

B b. Ice. N II, innay. 

C c, dice. .0 o, 0. 

D d, dee. P p, pee. 

E e, ay. Q q, coo. 

F f, iff ay. R r, (rray. 

G g", jee. S s, tssay. 

Hh, dckah. T t, tee. 

I i, e. U u, 00. 

J j, e. V V, voo. 

L 1, cUay. Z z, dsaitah. 

G. Our letters k, w, x, y, are not made use of by the Itali- 
ans, excepting where they have to spell some foreign pro})er 
name, or some word foreign to their own language. 

7. A, E, I, J, o, u, are Vowels, and the rest are Consonantfr. 
As to mute letters, as we call them, or letters which are not 
sounded in pronunciation, the H is the only letter of this kind 
with the Italians ; and it is so only when it is employed at the 
beginning of a word. But of this letter I shall speak further on, 
in what relates to Prosody. 



CHAPTER III. 

Of Prosody. 



8. Prosody is that part of grammar which relates to pronun- 
ciation ; and it teaches us two things, namely, what sound we 
are to give to letters, either as they stand singly, or as they are 
joined in syllables and words, and on what part of a word we 
are, in pronouncing it, to lay most emphasis, or stress of the 
voice. For instance, in the w^ords paleo, a top, and palio, a 
prike : Italian Prosody would teach us, in the first place, that. 



III.] OF PROSODY. 13 

to pronounce singly the letters j), a, I, e, i, o, of which these 
two words are composed, they must have sounds given them 
Hke pee, ah, ellay^ ay, e, o ; where we see, that the /> and the 
are to be pronounced just the same as those letters are in our 
own alphabet ; that the a is to be pronounced as it used to be 
of old in England ; but that the /, e, and i, are very different 
in this respect from the same letters in our language. Then, 
on what part of the word are we to lay the emphasis ? We 
learn to know this, in our own language, by having been ac- 
customed, from our infancy, to practice the matter, and to hear 
others constantly pronouncing words properly ; we know that we 
must, for example, pronounce the word compliment, laying the 
emphasis on the first syllable, and the word compliance, laying 
it on the second syllable ; that it must be compliment, and compli - 
ance, and not compliment and compliance. We have words in 
English, of very different meaning, spelled precisely in one way ; 
as, record, which is sometimes a verb, meaning to register a 
thing ; and sometimes a noun, meaning a register in which a 
thing is recorded : the word desert is sometimes a verb, mean- 
ing to abandon ; and sometimes a noun, meaning a wilderness 
or wild country. Yet habit tells us, that if we have to use these 
words in their capacity of verbs, we must pronounce them record 
and desert ; and if in their other capicity, record and desert. 
In the same manner, we say to entrance, meaning to put in a 
trance; and entrance, meaning the medium of going into, or the 
act of going into, a place. So, with the Italians, the word 
balia, for example, sometimes means a nurse, and sometimes 
power or authority : in the former case, the emphasis is laid on 
the first syllable, and the word is pronounced hdlia ; in the 
latter case it is pronounced halia. Then, ancora means an 
anchor, and awcora^'means again or also. The word paleo is pro- 
nounced paleo ; the word palio, pdlio ; and, in innumerable in- 
stances, similar to these that I have cited, it is impossible for an 
English person to be able to place the emphasis on the right 
syllable of a word, without either having heard Italians speak 
a good deal, or having read a good deal of their language. 

9. There are two accents, and one mark, employed in the 
Italian language, as guides for pronunciation, which I must 
here notice. The accents are, the grave accent ( ^ ) ai;d the 



I 

14 OF rRosoDT. [Cha)>. 

acute accent ('). These accents are employed to show what 
i^ound wc are to give to letters, which I shall speak of more 
fully presently, and on what syllable we are to lay that emphasis 
of which I have already sj)okcn. I would advise those who are 
only beginning to read Italian, to read no book throughout 
which accents are not constantly employed ; for they are not 
always employed where they might be. There are cer- 
tain cases in which the accents must always be employed, in 
order to distinguish two words of different meaning which are 
written in one way ; but it is not so in all cases. In the 
tollowing monosyllables, where we see words of different mean- 
ings spelled with just the same letters, they should be invaria- 
bly used. 

e, and. 
d(7, from, by. 
di, of. 

si, himself, herself, itself, them- 
la, the, her. [selves. 

//, the, them, 
we, us, of it. 
te, thee. 

10. In the above instances, the difference of meaning in- 
tended by the word is shown simply by there being an accent 
in the one case and no accent in the other. In other instances, 
like the following, the difference is shown by the placing of the 
accent on a different letter in the word. It will be perceived 
that pie has no accent at all on any letter when it is used in the 
second sense ; but that word which is placed in contradistinc- 
tion in the first sense always has, so that there never can be 
any mistake. 

coin, yonder. cola, a cullender. 

gid, already, now. gla, he, she, or it, went. 

die, he gave. dte, a poetical word for daij. 

pit (forpicde), a foot. pie, (adjective, fem. plu.) pious. x 

lu), a wren. lui, him. 

balia, power. bulia, a nurse. 

b6cio, a kiss. bacio, a shaded spot. 

tneta, a half. meta, a boundary. 

perb, therefore. pero, a pear-tree. 

cos), thus. cosi, ridiculous things. 



^, 


he, she. 


or it. 


is. 


da. 


he, she. 


or it, 


gives. 


d). 


a day. 






k}. 


yies, so. 






Id, 


there. 


\ 




Ih 


thither. 






n^. 


nor, nei 


ther. 




tc\ 


tea. 







III.] OF PROSODY. 15 

1 1 . A great deal has been said by some grammarians on the 
»ubject of accent and emphasis in pronunciation, and, generally, 
I think, to the exclusion of other subjects which are of more 
consequence, and which may be treated of with more profit to 
the beginner. I will, however, just warn the reader, that 
there are a vast number of words, whiqh no grammarian 
thinks of enumerating in full, spelled in one way and yet of 
very different meanings. Such, for example, are the following : 



acc'etta (verb active) he accepts, accctta (noun) a hatchet. 

or (participle passive) accepted. 

ammkzza (verb active) he, she, or it, ammezza (verb neuter) it becomes 

cuts in two. ripe. 

collktto (participle passive) collected. coUctto (noun) a little hili. 
il'gge (verb active) he, she, or it, reads. U^e (noun) law. 

mtzzo (noun and adjective) half.' mezzo (adjective) ripe. 

ptsca (noun) a peach. pcsca (noun) the pursuit of fishing. 

pesco (noun) a peach-tree. 'pdsco (verb neuter) I fish. 

bdtte (noun) toads. bdtte (noun) a wine-cask. 

cblto (participle pjissive) collected. c6lto (adjective) cultivated. 

fdsse (noun) graves, or ditches. J'6sse (verb neuter) he, she, or it, 

init;ht be. 

indbtto (adjective) unlearned. indUto (participle passive) alleged, or 

induced. 

tbrta (adjective) twisted. . tdrta (noun) a tart. 

pbsta (noun) a post. -pSsta (participle passive) put. 

tryrre (verb active) to take away. tdrre (noun) a tower. 

vblto (adjective) turned. vdlto (noun) a countenance. 

sbiw (noun) a sound. s6no (verb neuter) I am, they are^ 

tumo (noun) a volume. t6mo (noun) a fall. 

vblgo (verb actiA'e) I turn. volgo (noun) the common people. 

rimbrso (noun) remorse. r2Wi(5rjo (participle passive) bitten again. 

mhrte (noun) death. m6rte (adjective plural) dead. 



12. I might give hundreds of examples in addition to 
these; but to ^do so would be to make a little dictionary, 
and would be to devote much more, room to this particular 
matter than is due to it, considering the space within which I 
propose to bring my work. The accent, in all of the above 
examples, is either on an e or an o. It is on these tvv^o 
letters that the grave and acute accents are most commonly 
employed ; and to learn how to give a proper sound to these 
two letters throughout the language is, perhaps, tlie most impor- 
tant thing in the pronunciation of Italian. The reader will ob- 
serve that the different meanings of these words of synonimous 



IG OF PBOSODT. X v[Chap. 

spelling are distinguished, not by the accent being placed on ;i 
<liffercnt syllabic in the word, but by tlie accent being in the one 
case grave and in the other acute. What variety of sound 
these accents are intended to dictate I shall explain a little 
further on, where I sliall show the difference between e open and 
e close, oj>en and o close. Tliroughout this work, I make use 
of the acute accent*(') just to show on what ])art of a word the 
emphasis lie?. Employing it in this way, I do not intend it as 
a mark to distinguish one sound horn another, except where the 
difference of sounds is particularly treated of ; but merely as a 
sign to show on what syllable of a word we are to lay the 
emphasis. We have now to speak of the mark of Elision. 

13. The mark of elision ( ' ), more commonly called the apos- 
trophe, is intended to cut off a letter at the beginning of a word, 
or a letter, or letters, at the end of a word. This mark be- 
longs, perhaps, more i)roperly to Orthogruphy tJian to Prosody ; 
but, as it has a power in pronunciation, I have thought it best 
to mention it along with the accents, under one head. The 
common use of the apostrophe is to prevent the coming together 
of two vowels, one at ^he end of a word and the other at the 
beginning of a word following. In prose it is used merely 
foi the sake of harmony ; in poetry it is particularly useful with 
the Italians, both as relates to harmony and to measure. The 
vowel cut off is, in most instances, that at the end of a word, 
and especially in prose; but in poetry it is very frequently cut 
off at the beginning of a word. The following are examples: 



i^tumii' io vedo dal ciel Bcpnder /' 

[Aurora, 
Con la fronte di rosa, e co* crin d' oro. 

Pet. C. 

Verso una Talle ove il Circasso er'ito. 

Ari. O. F. 

Che dibb' io far ; che mi consigli ? 

Pet. S. 

Ai^co, or t' am' io, rd or V onoro, 
A'trtii' h.ii codtuiui variati, &c. 

Pkt. C. 

QufsV a la terra destinata a noi. I This is the land destined to us. 

Car. E. I 

Ivi sorpo ««' altr' Ida, onde nomata 
Ka t' Ida nostra, ontf ha seme e radicc 
Nostro legnaggio, &c. 

Cab. E. 

Sojt' opni gente in tntti i ae- 



Wheu I see Aurora descend from the 
heavens, with her rosy countena^>re 
and gulden Lair. 

Towards a valley where the Circasaian 
was gone. 

^^hat should I do ; what dost thou ?.d- 
Tise me ? 

Friend, now I love tbee, and now I 
honour thee, because thou hast 
changed thy manners. 



There rise? another Ida, whence our Ida 
is named, whence our race has its 
seed and root. 



Over every nation in all ages they 
shall rule. 



Dcnuineranno, &c. [coli 

Car. £. | 

Ben presso al decim* anno. I Very near the tenth year 

Car. E. 



I 
III.] or PROSODY. 17 

14. Here we see the apostrophe used to cut off vowels at the 
end of words. The words quand\ V , co\ d\ er' debV , t\ am , 
perch' , quest' , un , altr' V , ond* , sow,' decim', would, if spelled 
out to the end, be quando, la, coi, di, era, debbo, amo, perche, 
questa, una, altra, la, onde, sovra, decimo. In the Examples 
I am about to give we shall see the apqstrophe both at the 
beginning and at the end of words : 

E 'ncantro a le rostre armi a I' anne f And against your arms he excites to 
Gli eterni dci, &c. [incita aims the eternal gods. 

Cab. E. I 



Ivi 4 quel nostro viro, e dolce sole 
Ch' adorna» e'njiora la tua riva manca 

Pet. S 



There is that lively and fair «tiQ of 
ours, which adorns and embellishes 
with flowers thy left bank. 

Colui ch* a te ne' nvia. I He who sends us to thee. 



Pet. S. 

Vi sente d' un ruscello il roco pianto, 
E'^ sospirar dell' aura infra le Ironde, 
E di musico cigno il flebil canto, 
E'/ usignuol che plora e gli risponde. 

Tas. G. L. 

Com' perde agcTolraente in uu mattino 
Quel che 'n molV aimi a gran pena s' 

[acquista. 
Pet. C. 



There he hears the hoarse murmur of 
a rivulet, and the sighing of the 
gale among the trees, and the dole- 
ful note of the musical swan, and 

the nightingale that wails and re- 
sponds t o him. 

How it loses in one morning [that 
which in many years is acquired 
with great trouble. 



15. In these latter examples we see the V , ch' , d' , dell', corn, 
molt', s', as further instances of the vowel cut off at the end of 
words ; and these, without the apostrophe, would be written 
/«, che, di, della, come, molti, si : while the 'ncontro, 'nfiora, 
'nvia, 7, 7, 'n, are examples of the vowel cut off at the begin- 
ing of words ; and these, to spell them in ftdl, would be incontro, 
infiora, invia, il, il, in. 

Sounds of Letters. 

16. An able grammarian has remarked, and really without 
much exaggeration, that it is as difficult for a writer to describe 
the pronunciation of words in writing, as it is for a painter to 
represent a sound in colours. Pronunciation is purely a prac- 
tical matter, and must, to be well learned, be communicated 
by the tongue of the teacher to the ear of the learner. But 
as there is hardly any thing that can be called troublesome or 
difficult to learn in the pronunciation of Italian, I will follow 
the example of others in this respect, and endeavour to give my 
reader some notion how the letters, as united with one 
another in syllables, are to be pronounced.. But I must warn 



18 .OF PROSODY. [Chap. 

the reader, that, to give him inptructions upon this part of the 
subject, to such an extent as could ensure him any thing 
hke perfection, a great deal more must be said than the purposed 
limits of my work will permit. , 

A. 

This letter is pronounced broad, as we pronounce the Inter- 
jection Ah ! It is sometimes pronounced long, sometimes short, 
as in English ; but it does not change its sound, as it does 
with us. When we pronounce it long, it is like ay, as in male, 
tale; when short, like ah, as in marry, carry. In Italian it 
must always be like ah ; and the only difference is, that when 
there is an emphasis to be laid on this letter, we are to dwell 
somewhat longer on the letter, and to give it more fullness of 
sound : as, for example, in the word platano, a plane-tree : where 
the first a is to be sounded long, and the latter a short. 

B. 

This letter is pronounced in two different ways by the Italians: 
either hee, like our b in Enghsh, or hay, like the same letter in 
French. 

c. 

This letter is pronounced chee, like the chea in cheat. Some 
Italians pronounce it chay, hke the cha in change. 

Rule 1 . — When c comes before either of the vowels e and i, 
it is pronounced soft, the same as ch in the word choose; as, 
ctlebre, celebrated, citta, a city, which' are to be pronounced 
chelehre, chittd. 

Rule 2. — Also when c is double before e or i, it must be soft ; 
as, uccello, a bird, uccidere, to kill ; which jnust be pronounced 
ucchello, ucchidere. 

Rule 3. — c before the vowels a, o, u, must be pronounced hard, 
like c in the word card, or as our k would be ; as, capo, a 
head, cosa, a thing, cuoco, a cook ; which are pronounced kapo, 
kosa, kuoko. 

Rule 4. — When c is joined with h , and they come imme- 
diately before e or i, the c is then hard; as, cheto, quiet, chiave, 
a key ; which are pronounced keto, kiuve. 



III.] OP PROSODY. 19 

Rule 5. — When c is double before h, or before either of the 
vowels a, o, u, it must be hard; ViS v^cehio, an old man, vacca, 
a cow, tabdcco, tobacco, accusa, an accusation ; which must be 
pronounced veckio, vacka, tabacko, ackusa. 

The people of Tuscany, wlio are said to speak the best Italian, 
pronounce this letter in a manner strikingly incorrect and ugly. 
Before the vowels e and i, they pronounce c Hke sh : for in- 
stance, cinque cento, five hundred, they would pronounce, shinque 
shento. Then, before a, o, and n, they give c the sound of 
h aspirated; so they would pronounce the words caj)0, cosa, cuoco, 
as if they were spelled hapo, hosa, huoho. 

D. 

This letter, like ours, is pronounced dee. Some Italians give 
it the sound of day, like that of the same letter in French. 

E. 

This letter is pronounced ay, just as we pronounce the letter 
a in English. The e has two different sounds in Italian when 
ioined with other letters. In one case it is called e open, in the 
other e close. It is very important to know when it is to be 
sounded in the one way, and when in the other. I have already 
given some examples, in speaking of the two accents, of words 
written in one way that have different meanings, which mean- 
ings can be distinguished in speaking only by the different 
manner of sounding the e, or, in writing, by the accent being 
grave or acute. The grave accent is the sign of its being open, 
the acute accent of its being close. The following examples, 
which are from the list I have already given, will show the 
difference : 

E open. E close. 

Legge, he, or she, reads. Legge, law. 

Pesca, a peach. , Pesca, the pursuit of fishing. 

In the former instances, that is, where the grave accent is 
used, and where the e is open, it is to be sounded ay, like our 
a in bane, pane. In the latter instances, where the acute accent 



!20 OF PROSODY. [Chap. 

is uecd, and where the e is close, it must be f?ounded the same 
as our € in den, fell, tell, &c. 

F. 

Tliis letter is pronounced cffay. 

G. 

This letter, which, like our g, is pronounced ^>e (and by some 
Italians tljoy), has, when joined with other letters, two distinct 
sounds, the one hard and the other soft, just as it has in 
English. 

Rule 1 . — g is always hard before the vowels a, o, u, before h, 
and before r, and sometimes before I. It is hard before these 
vowels, as in gaUina, a hen, goito, a cup, gusto, taste ; like our 
g in gall, gold, gull. It is hard before the consonants h, r, and /, 
as in ghirlanda, a garland, grido, a cry, glorioso, glorious; like 
our g in gherkin, grain, glorious. 

Rule 2. — g before either e or i is soft ; as in gclo, frost, 
giglio; a lily; which must be pronounced jaylo, jeelio. When 
the g is double before e or i, the two (7's have a sound like dg, 
the same as the two gr's have in our word allege ; as in Ugge, 
law, Icggere, to read, piggio, worse, 6ggi, to-day ; which are 
pronounced ledge, ledgere,pedgio, odgi. I have before observed, 
that g before / is sometimes hard ; but it is not always so, and 
the sound of the g soft, in Italian^i contributes greatly to the ge- 
neral softness of the language. 

Rule 3. — In the syllables gla, gle, glo, glu, g is hard, as in 
our words glade, glebe, glory, glum : but. 

Rule 4. — If / be followed by /, and g immediately precede 
thoee two letters, the g is soft ; as in figlio, son, foglio, leaf, 
meglio, better, moglie, wife, padiglione, pavilion ; which words 
must be pronounced somewhat the same as if the g were 
omitted and another / put in its place : fillio, follio, mellio, 
rnollie, padiUione. There are some very few exceptions to this 
rule ; as, in the words negligere, to neglect, and the rest of the 
parts of that verb, in negligcnza, negligence, Auglia, a name 
for England, anglic6no, anglican, auglicismo, anglicism, an- 
glico, English, in aU which words the gli is to have just the same 
sound as the same syllable has in our word negligence. 



III.] OP PROSODY. 21 

Rule. 5. — g before n is soft, and has such a sound as it would 
be difficult to describe by a comi3arison with any thing in our 
language. See the table of syllables further on, gl, &c. gn, &c. 
The sound of the^ in such cases might be easily taught to a French- 
man in WTiting ; but it is not easy, indeed it is impossible, to 
teach it, by that means, to an EngUshman ; for it is seldom, if 
ever, that we find the g having, in our language, a similar sound. 
The gn in feign, deign, are, in their sound, something like those 
letters in the Italian ; but, after all, this, like the proper sound 
oigli, can be well taught only by word of mouth. 

H. 

24. This letter is pronounced ackah. It is, as I have before 
said, the only mute letter in the Italian alphabet. At the 
beginning of a word it is never sounded any more than if it 
had no place there at all ; and the only reason for employing it 
in that situation is to distinguish some words from others in 
writing. The following are the only instances in which it is so 
employed now-a-days, in which instances it has not the least 
sound given to it: 

ho, I have. , o, or. 

hai, thou hast. ai, to the. 

ha, he has. a, to. 

hanno, they have. anno, a year. 

hamo, a fish-hook, amo, I love. , 

25. Even here the h is omitted by some writers, though 
such omission has been condemned. It is employed at the 
end of words in only a few instances, namely, in the Inter- 
jections, a&, ah, ah, deh, alas, eh, eh, oh, oh. — It was formerly 
the fashion, as may be seen in reading old editions of books in 
Italian, to employ the h, very frequently, at the beginning of a 
word which would otherwise begin with a vowel ; as in ora 
an hour, onore, honour, ebbero, they had, onestci, honesty, &c. 
which, in old style, were written hora, honore, hebbero, hohestd, 
— ^The most important use of the h is where that letter is im- 
mediately preoeeded by c or g, in which cases, as has been ex- 
plained in speaking of those two letters, the h causes the c or g 
to be sounded hard, while, if the h were omitted, they would 
have, to be sounded soft. In such cases the h is of great force 



22 OP PROSODY. [Cliap. 

in distinguishing words: for instance, chino, a slope, cketo, 
quiet, vtgghio, I awake, vccchia, old, would, if written or 
pronounced cino, ccto, vcggio,icccia, s'lipiihy aplumb, a whale, 
I see, a vetth. 

I. 

This letter is pronounced like our letter e, as the double e in 
the word hee. 

Rule 1. — ^When i comes between the consonants c, g, gl, sc, 
and the vowels a, o, or u, the use of it serves only to make the 
pronunciation more soft, and the t is not so distinctly sounded 
as it is in general ; as, in ciascUho, every one, maggiore, greater, 
moglie, a wife, scivpato, wasted ; which words are pronoimced 
as if the cias, gio, glie, sciu, had, in each of them, only one 
syllable, and as if the ia, io, ie, iu, were diphthongs. 

Rule 2. — When i is immediately followed bv another ^'Dwel, 
it generally forms, along with that vowel, a diphthong, and the 
two together are pronounced short; as in piaga, a wound, 
mx4le, honey, fiore, a flower, fiume, a river. Sometimes, 
though not very often, the i is, in such cases, divided from the 
other vowel, and the two vowels are both sounded quite dis- 
tinctly ; as in halm, power, die, a day, hacio, a shaded spot, 
chiunque, whoever, apologia, an apology, melodia, a melody; in 
which words the lia, die, cio, chiun, gia, dia, are to be sounded 
as being of themselves, or belonging to, two distinct syllables : 
ha-lt-a, di-e, ba-ci-o, chi-urt'que, apolo-g^i-a, melo-di-a. 

This letter has just the same sound in Itahan as the i. 
Some have asserted that it is, at times, a consonant in the 
Italian language, as it always is in Enghsh ; but this 
assertion has, very properly, been condemned by others. 
There can be no use in Ccdling it a consonant as relates to the 
Italian ; for its sound is always precisely the same as that of 
the i. Its use, however, is not unnecessary. It is employed, 
most commonly, at the ends of nouns in the plural number ; and 
that employment of it, which I shall have to speak of in the 
Etymology of Nouns, is reasonable enough ; for it stands, in 
such cases, in the stead of a double i, and is to be pronounced 
as if it were a double i. Besides this, modem orthography has 



III.] OF PROSODY. 23 

introduced this letter, in the place of the i, at the beginning of 
all words where the letter following is a vowel, and between other 
letters in some words ; at the beginnings of 1 words, as in jam- 
bico, iambic, jw, yesterday, j'ota, iota, jurisdiziSne, jurisdiction ; 
between other letters in words, as in rasojo, a razor, librujo, a 
bookseller, scoUjOy a scholar, noja, vexation. But the sounds, 
in these instances, must still be just the same as if the words 
were written iambico, ieri, iota, iurisdizione, ani rasoio, librdio, 
scoldio, noia. — In some cases this letter has been introduced in 
place of the r, to soften the pronunciation of words ; as in 
accidjo, steal, dandjo, money, Febrdjo, February, scoldjOj a 
scholar, not d jo, a notary, which were otherwise written accidro, 
dandro, Febrdro, scoldro, notdro. 

It has been a disputed point with grammarians, whether the 
j ought or ought not to be used, in some cases, instead of the 
i. Galignani tells us that wq/a, vexation, cuojo, leather, librdjo, 
a bookseller, jeri, yesterday, juridico, lawful, are corruptions ; 
and that these words should be spelled noia, cuoio, librdio, ieri, 
iuridico. But practice seems to favour the^', in such cases. In 
modern dictionaries the words io, I, and ionico, ionic, are, 
generally, the only ones to be found where the second letter in 
the word is a vowel, and where i, and not j, precedes that 
vowel. And as to the employment of ^ between two vowels in 
the body of a word, this use of it seems to be reasonable 
enough ; for it gives us to vmderstand that they and the vowel 
following it are not be sounded together as a diphthong, as the /, 
when joined to a vowel, almost always is. In speaking of the 
i, we have seen the examples pidga, miele, &c : and there the 
accent falls distincly on the vowel next to the i, and the i is 
sounded quite short along with the a, e, &c., and the two letters 
form a diphthong. And then we have seen the examples, 
which are exceptions to the general sound of the i, in the words 
balm, die, bacio, &c. ; but then here must always be an accent 
placed over the i, which is not the case with j as employed 
between vowels in a word. When we find words with these 
combinations of letters in them, aja, oje, ujo, or any such, 
where the j comes between two vowels, we shall generally see 
that there is an emphasis on the first vowel, that rrhich precedes 
the j, as there is in noja, cuojo, librdjo ; and, yet, the j, in such 



24 OP PROSODY. [Chaf(. 

cases, must not join with the \owc\yfhlch follows it in a diph- 
thong, a? the i docs with the vowel mpiaga, miilc, &c. ; but the 
three vowels must all be somewhat distinctly sounded : nu-j-a, 
cuo-j'O, libra-j-o ; or, perhaps, the j should rather be sounded 
with the first vowel than with the last : noj-a, cuoj-o, lihraj-o. 
Sometimes the emphasis is on the vowel which follows the j ; 
and, in such cases, the employment of the j shows that the 
former vowel and the i are not to be a diphthong, but are both 
to be pronounced, in some degree, distinctly from each other ; 
as in the words ghiajoso, gravelly, and ghiandajone, a great 
magpie, where we see the accent on the latter vowel ; while the 
words ghiaja, gravel, and ghiandaja, a magpie, have the accent 
on tlie former vowel. — I leave it to the critics to decide which 
is the best to employ in such cases, the i or the^'. Such is the 
fact, however, in practice, that 7 is used to denote that there is 
not a diphthong, and that i must always form a diphthong, when 
in -conjunction with a vowel, except in a few cases, as in the 
examples before given. 

This Letter is pronounced ^llai/, 

M. 

This letter is pronounced emmay. 

N. 

This letter is pronounced Innay. 

o. 

This letter is pronounced just as our is in English. The 
0, like the e, is subject to two varieties of sound, the open and 
the close. The grave accent is the sign of its being open, 
the acute accent of its being close. I will here repeat, as with 
the e, some of the words which have been before given as ex- 
amples of the grave and acute accents : 

O open. O close. 

pbsta, a post. posta, placed. 

torre, to take away. torre, a tower. 

vhlgo, I turn. volgo, the common people. 

sono, a sound. sono, I am, thev are. 

vblto, turned. volto, a countenance. 



III.] OF PROSODY. 25 

In the former instances, that is, where the grave accent is 
used, the o is sounded more distinctly, and open; as in our 
words bone, tone, prone : in the latter instances the o is sounded 
less distinctly, and close; as in our' words ponder, torture, 
mortal. 

p. 

This letter is pronounced j9ee, like our /> in English. Some 
Italians give it the sound of pay, as the French do. 

Q. 

This letter is pronounced coo, like the coo in cool. It is 
never employed in Italian but before an u, and when the u is 
followed by an i, the ui is always a diphthong, and the qui is 
sounded short, as being only one syllable ; as qui, here, quietare 
to quiet, quivi, there ; where the qui is to have the same em- 
phasis given it as we should give to qwi, and is not to be pro- 
nounced cooi. 

R. 

This letter is pronounced erray. There is a peculiar rough- 
ness given to the sound of it by the Italians, as by the French, 
particularly when the r is double, and this is to be learned 
only by ear. When the r is double, both r's are distinctly 
sounded ; as in guerra, war, terra, earth. We have no sound 
for the r, in our language, similar to that which the Itahans 
give it : even the erray, which is put here as the combination 
of letters most apt to teach the sound of the r, as it stands 
alone, will not be sufficient, without hearing an Italian pro- 
nounce the letter. ^ / 

s. 

This letter is pronounced essay. The 5 has two different 
sounds in Italian, as in English : the one is called hissing, the 
other is like the sound of our z. The s hissing is sounded 
like the s in our words singer, distance ; the s like z is sounded 
as our « m pleasing, easy. 

Rule 1 . — It is always hissing when it comes immediately 
before either of the consonants c, f, p, q, t -, as in seudo, 
shield, sfera, sphere, specchio, mirror, squallore, paleness,. 
stagiSne, season. 

c 



26 OF i'Rosoor. [Chap. 

Rule 2. — s is hissing l)efore the vowels a, e, i, o, u ; as in 
s/iie, salt ; scdia, chair ; sicuro, safe ; solo, alone ; subito, imme- 
diately. 

Ridco. — 5 is hissing wherever it is double; as in mcsse, 
harvest, sasso, stone. 

Rule 4. — 5 is hissing at the terminations of adjectives in 
oso, osa, osi, ose, singular and plural, masculine and feminine ; 
as in glorioso, (/loriusa, gloriusi, gloriuse, glorious ; ritroso, 
ritrosn, ritrusi, ritrose, shy. 

Rule 5. — s is sometimes hissing, and sometimes like z when 
between two vowels in Nouns ; as in r'tao, laugh, casa, house, 
pustty rest, where it is hissing ; and in spusa, spouse ; rosa, 
rose ; prusa, prose ; paradiso, paradise ; where it is like z in 
English. When 5 is to have the one, and when the other sound, 
in these cases, is to be learned only by practice. 

Rule 6. — s is like z before all the other consonants not men- 
tioned above, namely, b, d, g, I, m, n, r ; for it never immedi- 
ately precedes an A or a z in Italian : as in the words sbaglio, 
mistake, sdegno, scorn ; sgannare, to undeceive ; shale, disloyal ; 
smontare, to descend ; snello, nimble ; sradkare, to root up. Here 
the words must be pronounced as if they were written zbaglio, 
zdegno, zgannare, &c. 

Rule 7. — 5 is hke z in all words derived from the Latin in 
which 5 in the Italian fills the place of x in the Latin word ; 
as in esamindre, to examine, escmpio, example, esort/ire, to 
exhort; wliich, in Latin, are written examinare, exemplum, 
exhortare. Pronoimce, ezaminare, &c. 

Rule 8. — s is like z when it is preceded by the vowel «; as 

in muslire, to muse ; accusa, accusation ; causa, cause ; 

which are pronounced, muzare, acciiza, cauza. The word 

fuso, spindle, is an exception to this rule, and the 5 here 

must be hissing. 

Rule 9. — 5 is like z in adjectives ending in ese, esi, as in cor- 
tcse, corttsi, courteous ; palese, palest, publick. 

Rule 10. — ^Vhen 5 comes immediately before c, and the c 
is immediately followed by e or i, the sc are sounded precisely 
like sh in English; as in sa'gliere, to choose, scidcco, foolish; 
which must be pronounced shegliere, shiocco. 



III.] OP PROSODY. 27 

T. 

This letter is pronounced as in English, tee. By some it is 
pronounced tai/, as it is in French. 

u. 

This letter is pronounced oo, like the double o in the word 
bloom. 

V. • , 

This letter is pronounced voo. 

z. 

This letter is pronounced dsaitah. Some pronounce it is 
like the ts at the end of the word ivits. It has two different 
sounds in Italian, as joined with other letters, like the 5. It is 
sometimes sounded like ts, in which case it may be called hiss- 
ing ; at other times like ds and then it maybe said to be rough. 
When it is hissing, its sound is like that of ^5 in bits, hits, wits . 
when rough, its sound is Uke that of ds in hounds, Windsor ^ 
So the words prezzo price, and saviezza, wisdom, in which 
the z is hissing, must be pronomiced hke pretso, savietsa ; and 
the words zio, uncle, zelo, zeal, in which the z is rough, 
must be pronounced as dsio, dselo, or dzio, dzelo would be in 
English. 

Rule 1. — z is hissing in all nouns ending in anza, and 
enza ; as in danza, dance ; accoglimza, entertainment. 

Rule 2. — z is hissing where the diphthongs ia, ie, io, come 
immediately after it ; as in amicizia, friendship, fac^zie, merry 
sa3dngs, rivoluzidne, revolution. 

Rule 3. — z is generally hissing when it is double between 
two vowels; as in bellezza, beauty, carezza, caress, pozzo, 
well : but in a great many such cases the z is sounded in the 
other way; as in mezzo, half, where the double z must be 
rough. It would take up a good deal of room to show all the 
instances of z hissing smdz rough. The double z and the single z 
may each, in different cases, be pronounced both hissing and 
rough ; as, rozzo, rude, garz6ne, boy ; and dolcezza, mildness, 
vizio, vice : in the two former of these examples the z, both 
double and single, must be hissing; while, in the two latter, thev 
must both be rough. — In the old fashion of spelling Italian, the 

c 2 



88 OF PRORonr. [Cliap. 

/ used to be employed in hundreds of cases where the single z 
is always employed at the present day, wliich may be seen by 
taking up any Italian book of an old edition. Tlie / was em- 
ployed, most commonly, before the diphthongs ia, ie, io ; as 
in amicizia, facezie, rivoluzione, which used formerly to be 
written am'uitin, faretie, r'wohitione. Also in many words c 
used to be employed where we now generally find the z ; as 
in the words bencfizio, benefit, giudizio, judgment, vffizio, 
office, which used to be written henrficio, g'nidicio, ufficio. 

There is one general observation to be made with respect to 
all the consonants, b, c, d, f, g, I, m, n, p, r, s, t, namely, 
that whenever these letters are doubled, both the letters 
should be somewhat distinctly pronounced in the Italian. In 
some cases the pronouncing of each of the two letters distinctly 
is of the greatest consequence, as in the case of the 1st person 
plural of the future time of the Indicative mood, and in the 1 st 
person plural of what is called the Conditional mood, in verbs ; 
the difiereuce between which two inflexions of the verbs is 
marked by there being, in the first mood, one m, and, in the 
second, two ms. As for example, parlernno, we shall speak, 
parlenmmo, we should speak: /emermo, we shall fear, temercmmo, 
we should fear : fininmo, w^e shall finish, finiranmo, we should 
finish. Here it is important, in pronunciation, to give a 
distinct sound to each of the double letters, or there can be 
nothing to distinguish the two inflexions of the verb when we 
use the one or the other. We must pronounce, parlercm-mo , 
temerlm-mo, finir cm-mo. 

Sounds of Syllables. 

17. The following table exhibits the combinations of letters 
the sounds of which are the least easy to leani. They should be 
read over by the learner to some one who can teach the proper 
pronunciation. There is no sort of afl[inity of sound in our lan- 
guage, by which a person could weU be taught to give a right 
sound to the gl and the gn of the Italians, though there is 
hardly any difliculty in learning how to do so by ear. 



III.] OP PROSODY. 29 



A TABLE, 
TO TEACH THE PRONUNCIATION 

OF 

CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF LETTERS. 

As relates to C 

C soft : ce, ci, cia, cie, cio, ciu ; — pronounce like clmy, cJiee, cheeah, ckeeay, 
clieeo, cheeu. 

C soft after s : see, sci,scia, scie, scio, schc j — pronounce like shay, shee, sheea/i, 
sheeay, sheeo, sheeu. 

C hard before h : che, chi, sche, schi ; — pronounce like hay, kee, skay, skee. 

C hard after j .- sea, sco, scu ; — pronounce like ska, sko, skoo. 

As relates to G. 

G soft : ge, gi, gia, gio, giji.y— pronounce like jay,jee,jeeah, jeeo, jeetc. 

G hard before h : ghe, ghi, sghe, sghi ;— pronounce gay, ghee, sgay, sghee. 

G hard before o and u : go, gua, gue, gui ; — pronounce go, gooah, gooay, gooee. 

G before li : gll, gUa, glie, glio, gliu, gliuo ;— pronounce the gl as we pronounce 
those letters in the foreign word seraglio. ^ 

G before n : gna, gnc, gni, gno, gnu, gnuo j — pronounce the gn as we pronounce 
those letters in the words/elgn, deign. 

As relates to Q. 

Q always preceding u : qua, que, qui, quo ; — pronoxmce eooah, cooay, quee, 
qnoh. 

As relates to the double R. 

Arra, erre, orri, urro, orru ; — ^pronounce roughly ar-ra, er re, or-ri, ur-ro, 
or-ru. 

As relates to S. 

S hissing : sa, se, si, so, su ; — pronoimce like sah, say, see, so, soo. 

S like z : eso, ese, osa, oso, isa, iso '; — pronounce like ayzo, ayzay, ozah, ozo, 
izah, izo, ^ j 

I 

As relates to Z. 

Z single, hissing : i (aza, eze, ezi, izo, ozu ; 1 pronounce at sah, etsay^ etsi, 

Z double, hissing : j \azza, ezze, ezzi, izzo, ozzu ; i it so, otsoo. 

Z single, rough :\ (aza, eze, ezi, izo, ozu ; ipronounce adsah, edsay, edsee, 

Z double, rough:/ Xazza, ezze, ezzi, izzo, ozzu ji idso, odsoo. 



30 ETYMOLOGY IN GENERAL. [Chap. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Of Etymology in General. 

17. Etymology, as a branch of Grammar, teaches us the 
origin of words, or how words are related to, or derived from, 
one another. Thus, the words finishes, finishing, finished, are 
all derivatives of, or are related to, the Infinitive of the verb to 
finish. Him and his are derived from he; them from they : 
the Adjective beautiful is derived from the noun beauty, and the 
Adverb beautifully, again, from the Adjective beautiful. All 
the labour that is required as to this branch of Grammar, con- 
sists in the mere getting of icords by heart. Tliere are, in par- 
ticular, to be learned, the changes in the spelling of Articles, 
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. We shall see, that 
the comparatively great number that there are of these changes 
makes a striking difference between our language and the 
Italian. For example : 

io ebbi, I had noi avtmmo, we had 

tu avcsti, thou hadst voi avtste, you had 
egli ibbe, he had ^glino ebbero, they had 

Here, where we have but one change in the verb to have, the 
Italians have no less than six. 



v.] 



ETYMOLOGY 



31 



CHAPTER V. 

Etymology of Articles. 

18. In our language there are but two words that are Ar- 
ticles ; namely, the, which is called the Definite Article, and a 
or an, which is called the Indefinite Article. In ItaUan there 
are three words which answer the purpose of our the ; merely, 
il, lo, and la ; and one to answer the pm*pose of our a or an ; 
namely, un. Our articles, we know, never undergo any 
change of form excepting the one change to which a or an is 
subject ; but in Italian, the Articles do. The definite Articles 
must always change their fonn to distinguish the masculine 
and feminine gender, and the singular and plural number ; 
and they are, also, subject to change, when joined with Prepo- 
sitions, as we shaU immediately see. The Indefinite Article 
changes its form to distinguish gender, though it, like our a or 
an, is always in the singular number. I shall have to speak of 
Articles again in the next chapter, as they are so immediately 
connected with Nouns that the Etymology of the two Parts of 
Speech cannot be weU ti^eated of separately. I will here just 
show all the changes to which the Articles are liable. 



Masculme Article IL, the. 



Singular. 
II, or 7, the 
Del, of the 
Al, to, or at, the 
Dal, from the 
Nel, in the 
Col, with the 
Pel, for the 
^ulj on the 



Plural . 
I or li. the 
Dei or De\ of the 
Ai or A\ to, or at, the 
Dai or Da', from the 
Nei or Ne\ in the 
Coi or Co', with the 
Pei or Pe\ for the 
Sui or Su, on thQ 



32 



KTYMOLOOY 



[Chap. 



Masculine Article LO, the. 



Singular. 
Lo, the 
Dello, of the 
Alio, to, or at, the 
DallOj from the 
Nello, in the 
Collo, with the 
Pello, for the 
Sullo, on the 



Plural. 
Gliy the 
Degli, of the 
Aglif to, or at, the 
Dagli, from the 
Negli, in the 
Cofjf//, with the 
Pcgli, for the 
Sugli, on the 



Feminine Article LA, the. 



Singular. 
La, the 
Delia, of the 
yi//ff, to, or at, the 
Dalla, from the 
Nella, in the 
Co//ff, with the 
Pel la, for the 



Plural. 
Le, the 

Delle, of the 
-ri//e, to, or at, the 
Dalle, from the 
Nelle, in the 
Co//e, with the 
Pelle, for the 
Sulle, on the 



Sulla, on the 

Indefinite Article UN,^ a-a«. 

Masculine^ Feminine. 

un, or M/zo, a-an | un , or w«a, a-an 

19. The il or 7, and i or //, the /o and gli, the /a and le^ 
would never change their form, from beginning to eUd, but that 
the prepositions di, of, a, to, da, from, ne, in, con, with, ^er, 
for, su, on, are joined to them. These seven are the only 
prepositions that can be joined in this manner to the iVrticles ; 
and even this is, in a great measure, a modem st}le of writing ; 
for formerly the whole of these prepositions used to be written 
separately from the Articles ; and then it was de il, a il, da il, &c. 
de i, a i, da i, &c. de lo, a lo, da lo, &c. de gli, a gli, da gli, &c. 
de la, a la, da la, &c. de le, a le, da le, &c. The preposition di 
has been spelled de, when before the Article, as being more 
harmonious : the double Vs also, as in dello, alio, della, alia, 
delle, alle, &c. instead of de lo, a lo, de la, a la, de le, a le, &c. 



v.] OF ARTICLES. 33 

these double I's are intended to join more perfectly, and to 
hamionize, in pronunciation, the prepositions with the 
Articles. 

20. The Indefinite Article un means, literally, one. The 
Italians, like the French, have no word precisely like our a or 
an in their language. Instead of saying a horse, an hour, they 
say one horse, one hour ; not intending, in such cases, that 
the Article should have the sense of a numerical adjective, 
which it has in other instances, but just the same sense as 
the English a or an has in the examples above. Of the change 
of form in the un, as well as of that in the other Articles, 
I sliall be better able to treat in the next Chapter. 



S4 



ETVMOLOGV 



[Chap. 



CHAPTER VI. 



Etymology of Nnnns. 



21. In the Et^Tiiolopn^ of Nouns there are two things to be 
considereu ; namely, Gender, and Number. Tlicre is another 
matter called Case, wliich, also, it is customary to consider 
under this head. Nouns and Pronouns are said to be sub- 
ject to Case, and this Case is a matter of the greatest im- 
])ortance to" us as a part of our study in learning any foreign 
language. But this matter cannot be properly explained in 
few words ; and, therefore, I have thouglit it best in order to 
avoid repetition, to devote a separate Chapter to the subject of 
Case, under the head " Of Cases, and of the Governing of Cases ;" 
for v/hich see Paragraph 277. 

22. GENDER. In the Italian language every noun is 
either of the. Masculine or of the Feminine gender. All the 
Nouns in Italian terminate in one or other of the vowels, 
a, e, i, 0, u : there is hardly an exception. 

Nouns eliding in A. 

23. It is a general rule that Nouns ending in a are feminine. 
Tliose in the following list are exceptions to this rule, and the 
list contains the greater part of the exceptions. 



anarrramma, an anagram 
an/itcma, an anathema 
apotcgiiia, an apothegm 
apostima, an iniposthume 
as.sidma, an axiom 
clima, a climate 
diadi'ma, a diadem 
(fiaframma, a diaphragm 
dilemma, a dilemma 
diploma, a diploma 
d6<;ma, a dogma 
dn'imma, a dramnia 
emhUma, an emblem 
cnimma, an enigma 
epigrdmma, an epigram 
/a7it<isma, a spectre 



flimma, phlegm 
idiima, an idiom 
piancta, a planet 
pocma, a poem 
prisma, a prism 
problana, a problem 
programma, a programme 
scisma, a schism 
sistima, a system 
so/A, a sofa 
soflsma, a sophism 
stcmma, armories 
stratagcmma, a stratagem 
Uijfetfi, taffpty 
tima, a theme 
teorana, a theorem 



Vl.ji OF NOUNS^ 35 

When, in Italian, the proper name of a man, or any noun 
expressive of a man's quaUty, condition in Hfe, or occupation, 
ends in «, the noun is, of course, masculine : as, Andrea , 
Andrew; papa, pope; monarca, monarch; legista, lawyer; 
prof eta, prophet; poeta, poet; duca, duke; arciduca, arch- 
duke ; patriarca, patriarch ; scriba, scribe ; boja, hangman ; 
idiota, idiot ; ipocrita, hypocrite, apostata, apostate ; artista, 
artist; copista, copyist; eremiia, hermit; geometra, geometri- 
cian; moralista, moralist; oculista, oculist; sofista, sophist. 

Nouns ending in E. 

24. The far greater part of the nouns end in a, e, or o ,• those 
in i and u are, comparatively, very few in number. A great 
part of them, however, end in e ; and in this termination the 
gender is a much more irregular matter than in a or o. 

Rule 1. Nouns ending in le, me, ore, one, enie, onte, are m.as- 
culine, with nctt many exceptions. \ 

Rule 2. Nouns ending in iore are all masculine. 

Rule 3. Nouns ending in ione with a 2 or an 5 immediately 
preceding the i, are almost all feminine ; as /wiidwe/ fiction; 
delusione, delusion. 

25. These rules may be useful ; but it would be loss of 
time for the learner to study any thing more in the way of 
rulo as to the gender of nouns ending in e ; for, nouns of this 
termination are very irregular in respect to gender, and it is by 
practice only that a perfect knowledge of their genders can 
be obtained. 

Nouns ending in I. 

26. There are but few nouns ending in i. The following 
are pretty nearly the whole of them. I have put an m or an / 
against each noun, to mark the masculine or feminine 
gender. 

analisi, f. an analysis Giovedi, m. Thursday 

antitesi, f. an antithesis infilacappi, m. a bodkin 

ball, m. a bailif Lunedl, m. Monday 

barbagiunni, m. an owl Martedl, m- Tuesday 

cavadenti, m. a dentist Mercoledl, m. Wednesday 
cflf;a5<rttcci, m. a worm to draw a charge metamdrfosl, f. a metauiorphosis 

crimisi, m. crimson metrSpoll, f. a metropolis 

crisi, f. a crisis . meztodl, m noon, cr mid-day 

dl, in. a day parqfrusi, f. a paraphrase 



36 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

riiocisl, f. a diocroe V"^^> ™* »°d ^- *° equal 

iclissi, f. an rclipnc slndtrixi, i. ri-morae 

rttu.ll, f. an cxtncy tnf^lUiranloni, m. a ruffian 

in/asi, {■ an eniphasU test, f. a thesiit 

Ccnrsi, f. Gvuisia I'fwcrrfi, m. Friday 

Nouns endhuj in O. 

Rule. — All nouns common, ending in o, are mascaline,with 

the exception only of mano, hand, which is feminine. Tlie 

proper names of women, as Saffo, Sapho, are, of course, 

feminine. 

Nouns ending in U. 

27. Tlie nouns ending in u are very few in number. Most 
of them are written with an accent on the final w, as a sign of 
their being words contracted. 

f^ioteiitii, f. youtli, contracted from cintenti'itir or c:iorentute 

virtu, f. virtue, from rirtude or lirtide 

*erti/u, f. servitude, . . . from servitude or servitute 
.vr/i.'«rf7H, f. slavery, . . . from schfavitude or schiavitute 
gru, f. a cr.ine. 

The nouns in u are mostly feminine. There are some proper 
names of persons and places, however, of the other gender ; as, 
Gesu, Jesus, Peru, Peru, Esav, Esau. 

28. NUMBER. — Rule 1. All nouns ending in a in the sin- 
gular number, that are of the masculine gender, make their 
])lurals in i; as, pocta, poet, pocti, -poets ; pocma', poem, polfni, 
poems ; diadima, diadem, diadtmi, diadems. 

Rule 2. Those nouns that end in ta, with an accent on the 
final a, make no change in their plural ; as cittu, cit\', cittri, 
cities. There are not a great many of these, and they are all, 
like the nouns ending in u accented, contracted from what they 
formerly were in their spelling : as in the following examples : 

cittd, a city, contracted from citt&de, or ciftdte 
equitii, equity, .... from eqiiitdde or cquitdfe 
fedeltii, fidelity, . . . from fcdeltdde or fedeltdte 
prosperifd, prosperity, . from protpcritude or prosper! tdte 
avversitd, adversity, . . from avversitdde or avversitdte 

rrrifd, truth, from veritude or vcrifufe 

tttilifd utility, .... from titilitude or utilifute 
fe'icitu, felicity, . . . from frlicitdde or felicitate 
uniforntifa, uniformity, . from u^ifortAitdde or unJ/onniti'ite 
proffigalittj ,j>rodi^z.Uty , . from prodfgalitude or irod'.^nri- I'r 
bontt), goodness, . . . from bonfdde or bout ate 
estroniitd, extremity, . fron; fsfremildde or estrc»iiluie 
(tit, Hge, from ttdde or etiite 



VI.] OP NOUNS. 37 

Rule 3. — Nouns feminine in a, when the a is immediately 
preceded by a consonant, change the a into e in the plural ; as, 
la donna, the woman, le donne, the women ; la rosa, the rose, 
le rose, the roses; la pidnta, the plant, le pidnte, the plants. 

Rule 4. — Nouns ending in ca and ga require, in the plural, 
an h immediately following the c and g ; as. la formica, the 
ant, le formicUe, the ants; la pidga, the wound, le pidghe, 
the wounds. 

Rule 5, — Nouns ending in cia and gia, when there is 
an accent on the i, make their plurals by changing the final a 
into e ; as la bugia, the lie, le hugic, the lies ; V elegia, the 
elegy, V elegie, the elegies. But, if there be no accent on the 
i, and the ia be pronounced short, as a diphthong, which is 
most frequently the case, then the ia must be omitted, and the 
plural is formed by an e ; as, la gudncia, the cheek, le gudnce. 
the cheeks; lafrdngia, the fringe, le f range ^ the fringes. 

Rule 6. — In Nouns that end in ccia, or ggia, the coming 
together of the double c or double g invariably causes the ia to 
be a diphthong, and, in such cases, the ia is always changed to a 
simple e in the plural ; as, la treccia, the tress, le trecce, the 
tresses; la pidggia, the hill, le pidgge, the hills. 

Nouns ending in E. 

Rule 1 . — All nouns ending in e, when the e is not imme- 
diately preceded by an i, form their plurals in i ; as, il padre, 
the father, i padri, the fathers. 

Rule 2. — All nouns ending in ie have the same termination 
in both numbers ; as, la specie, the kind, le specie, the kinds; la 
progenie, the progeny, le progenie, the progenies ; Veffigie, the 
effigy, le effigie, the effigies ; la superficie, the surperfice, le super- 
ficie, the superfices ; la barbdrie, the barbarity, le barbdrie, the 
barbarities. 

Nouns ending in I. 

Rule. — All nouns ending in i in the singular, like those in td, 
tu, and ie, make , no change in the plural ; as, il barbagidnni, 
the owl, i barbagidnni, the owls ; la metropoli, the metropolis, 
le metropoli, the metropolises. 

Nouns ending in O. 
liule i . — AH nouns ending in o, where the o is immediately 



38 KTYMOLOOY [Chap. 

preceded by any consonant except c or g, or by any vowels ex- 
cept I, form their j)lurala by frimply clianging the o into i ; a?, 
i7 g/iiadoy the sword, ighiadi, the swords; fing/inno, the deceit, 
gring/inni, the deceits; il pah'o, the top, ipalei^ the tops. 

So far the termination of nouns in o is a very easy matter ; 
but, in nouns in co and go there is some difficulty. Gramma- 
rians in general confess, and Buommattei, who wrote to teach 
Italians the grammar of their own language, says, that practice 
alone can teach us how, in all cases, rightly to form the plurals 
of nouns in co and ^ro. Sometimes these nouns make their plurals 
with an h immediately following the c or g ; as, mdnico, 
handle, makes, in the plural, mdnichi, and dbbllgo, obliga- 
tion, makes obblighi. While other nouns, of the same termi- 
nations in the singular, have no h at the ending of the plural ; 
as, amho, friend, am'ici, friends, icologOy theologian, teulogi, 
theologians. And this variety, in the forming of the plural, 
is of great consequence ; since, as may be seen from what has 
been said respecting the pronounciation of the letters c and g, 
the use or omission of the h in such cases makes the c or ^ 
hard or soft. 

Rule 2. — all nouns ending in co and go, that are of no more 
than two syllables, form their plurals in chi and ghi ; as, fcOj fig, 
fichif figs ; pago, payment, y^ff^Ai, payments ; fuoco, ^e^/uuchi, 
fires ; luogo, place, luoghi, places. Tlie nouns porco, pig, and 
Greco, Grecian, are exceptions to this rule, and make, in the 
plural, porci and Greet. In some cases the h may be either em- 
ployed or not, at the discretion of the writer or speaker ; as, 
dialogo, dialogue, may be, in its plural, either dialogic or di- 
dloghi; astrolocjo, astrologer, may be either astrologi or as- 
trdloghi. 

Rule 3. — All nouns ending in jo drop the o to fomi the plural ; 
as, scoldjoy scholar, scoldj, scholars ; librdjo, bookseller ; Ubrdj, 
booksellers. 

Rule 4. — Nouns ending in io form their plurals by simply 
dropping the final o and leaving the i, or by dropping the io and 
taking a J in its place, or by dropping the final o and adding 
another t. 

Rule 5. — Sometimes the io is pronounced short, as being a 
diphthong, and then the noun makes its plural in i ,- as, hacio^ 



VI.] OP NOUNS. 39 

kisSy bdci, kisses; ruggio, rB.y, raggi, reiys; strdzio, torment, 
strazi, torments. 

Rule 6. — Sometimes the i and theo are both distinctly sound- 
ed, and not as a diphthong ; and the plural, in that case, must 
be in 7; 2iS, giiidicio, 'judgment, giudicj , judgments; principio^ 
principle, prbic'ipj, principles ; benefizio, benefit, benefizj, be- 
nefits ; tcmpio, temple, t^mpj, temples. 

Rule 7 . — When the i which precedes the final o has an accent 
On it, the plural is formed by a double i as, zio, uncle, ziif 
uncles ; cicafio, chit-chat, cicala, chit-chats ; no, rivulet, rii, 
rivulets ; des'io, desire, desa, desires ; and the two is are to be 
distinctly pronounced, laying an em.phasis on the first i. 

Rule 8. — When the final o is immediately preceded by ch, or 
by gl, the plural is always formed by simply dropping the o ; 
the io, in such cases, is always sounded as a diphthong; as in 
occhio, eye, Scchi, eyes ; figlio, son, figli, sons ; v(^cchio, old 
man, vecchi, old men ; scoglio, shelf, scogli, shelves. 

Nouns ending in U. 

It has before been observed, that there are but few nouns of 
this termination. They never change their endings to form the 
plural ; as, la virtil, the virtue, le virtu ; the virtues; lagru, the 
crane, le gi'ii, the cranes. — ^Vhen nouns in til, and those, also, in 
ta, are written in the old fashion at full length, then they follow 
the common rule as to nouns in e in the forming of their plu- 
rals. For example gioventii, youth, if written gioventude, or 
gioventute, would become, in the plural, gioventudi or gioventuti ; 
and cittcl, a city, if written cittdde, or cittdte, would become, in 
the plural, cittddi or cittdti ; and so forth with other nouns of 
the same character. 

Exceptions to the foregoing Rules. 

The word moglie, wife, makes- mop'/?, in the plural number; 
mille, thousand, makes milla; hue, ox, makes bu6i; ubmo, 
inan, makes uomini ; Dio, God, makes Dei • centindjo, hun- 
dred, makes centindja ; miglidjo, thousand, makes miglidja ; 
moggio, a measure, makes muggia ; stdjo, bushel, makes stdja ^ 
pdjo, pair, makes pdja ; uovo, e^^, makes uova ; rise, laugh, 
makes risa. — All the above, fKom centinajo to rise, are 



40 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

masculine in their singular number and feminine in their 
plural. 

There arc some few monosyllables, and words that have ac- 
cents on their final vowels, that never change their terminations 
to make the plural; as, i7 re, the king, i re, the kings ; il pit, 
the foot, i pic, the feet; ilfalhf the bonfire, i/alby the bonfires. 

0/ Nouns Hetei'oclite. 
Tlicrc are a good many nouns, in Italian, that are called by 
grammarians hcteroclite, which means that they are variable or 
irregular in their endings. Some have two terminations in the 
singular number ; others have as many as three terminations. 

Nouns of two Terminations. 

ala, or ale, a wing consiglicre, or consiglicro, a counsellor 

arciirc, or arclero, an archer forestiere, or forcstitro, a stranger 

urma, or iirmc, a weapon fridn, or f rude, a fraud 

iir pa, or arpe, a. h&TTp , J'r6fta, or J'r6f to, a. crowd 

banchiire, or banchiiro, a banker ipdcrita, or ipdcrlto, a hypocrite 

campanclla, or campaiullo, a little bell lampnda, or lurnparfc, a lamp 

cavallCrc, or caialiiro, a horseman iiurr/iicre, or nocchiro, a pilot 

chi6stra, or vhidstro, a cloister laiida, or laiide, praise 

cdnsole, or c6nsolo, a consul jtrigionicre, or prigionii.ro, a prisoner 

Nouns of three Terminations. 

barbicre, barbicri, or barbie.ro, a barber 
destricre, destriiri, or destricro, a steed 
gru, firite, or grua, a crane 
mestiire, mcsticri, or mcstiiro, a business 
mulatticre, niulattiiri, or mulatticro, a muleteer 
sdrice, sdrcio, or s6rco, a mouse 

In their genders and numbers these all follow the rules before 
given. Cflw/7rt«^//ff, for instance, is feminine, and campanello mas- 
culine ; frotta is feminine, and frotto piasculine. The singu- 
lar and plural numbers, in these nouns, are apt to be confound- 
ed with each other at times : ale, for instance, is the plural of 
ala, and is also sometimes used in the singular number, when, 
to make its plural, it must be ali. The same may be said of 
arpa, and arpe, arma and arme,fr6da B.udfrode, Idmpada and 
Idmpade, lauda and laiide. 

Nouns in O that have a double termination in the jjlural. 
There are some nouns, though not many, ahvays teiminating 
in in the singular, which may make their plurals either in i 
or in a. When the plural is in i, it follows the general rule, 



VL] 



OF NOUNS. 



41 



and the noun is of the masculine gender; but, when it is in a 
the noun changes its gender, and becomes feminine. There 
are some few of these, which have two terminations in the 
feminine plural, and maybe written either with an « or an e for 
their final letter ; as the noun frutto, fruit, which may make, 
in the plural, /tm?^?, as its masculine termination, ^cnAfrutta or 
fimtte, as its feminine termination. The following are a large 
part of these nouns of the double termination in the plural. 



Singular Masculine. 



Plural Masculine. Plural Feminine. 



an'ello, a ring, aiiclli anclla 

braccia, an arm, hracci braccia 

budello, an intestine, budclli bitdella ^ 

calcdgno, a talon, calcagni calcugna 

ciirro, a cart, carri cdrra 

castcllo, a castle, castelli castclla 

cervcllo, the brain, cervelli cervella 

coUHlo, a knife, coltcUi coltellif 

clglio, an eyebrow, cigli ciglia 

cbrno, a horn, c6rni cbrna 

dito, a finger, diti dita 

fcito, destiny, fdti fata 

filo, a thread, Jili fila 

fondamento, a foundation, fondamcnti fondamtnta 

frutto, fruit, -. friitti . frittta, or frutte 

fuso, a spindle, fusi fusa 



gindcchio, a knee, gin6cclii . . 

grido, a cry, gridi. . . . 

Idbbro, a lip, Idbbri . . . 

letizudlo , a. coYetlidi, lenzubli . . 

litto, a bed, Utti . . . . 

mulino, a miU, tnulmi . . . 

niemhro, a member, , mcmbri . . 

Jiiiiro, a wall, •. m-uri . . . . 

osso, a bone, 6ssi . . . . 

p6mo, an apple, p6?7ii .^ . . . 

peccuto, a sin, peccati . . 

succo, a bag, sdcchi . . . 

strido, a cry, stridi , . . 

piigno, a fist, pi/gni . . . 

vestimento, dress, vestimenti 



ginScchia 

grida 

Icibbra 

lenzu6la 

litta 
. vmlina 

membra 

mura 

6ssa . 

p6ma 

pec cat a 
, sdcca 

strida 

piigna 

vestlmtnfa 



Some of these, it must be observed, differ in their meanins: 
according to their variation in termination. Fila, as a plural, 
is the plural of filo, a thread; hut fili is more properly the plu- 
ral oifila, a file. In speaking figuratively oi fruits, the termi- 
nation in i should always be used; as i frutti delV Industrial 
the fruits of industry; but, otherwise, frutta or frutte should 
be preferred ; andfrvtta may b^ used, also, in the singular: 



42 



ETYMOLOGY 



[Chap. 



Wc may say mcmhri or membra in speaking of the parts of 
a natural bodv, Huch as those of the human bodv or of an animal : 
but, if we use the word figuratively, as in speaking of the 
members of a society of persons, then memhri should always be 
used. Miira should only be used in speaking of the walls or 
fortifications of a town : thus Aristo says, " Far cavamenti e 
riparar Ic mura," to make intrenchments and to repair the 
walls. — Corni is the plural of cornu, meaning a musical horn ; 
but, in any other sense, the plural of corno should be coma. 
There are a great many nouns that have a sort of adjective 
meaning, and express the occupation, condition, or character of 
persons, and the application of which is common to both sexes; 
as, magOf a conjurer ; amico, a friend. In English such nouns 
do not commonly change their termination to show the dif- 
ference of sex, though they do so sometimes. In Itahan they 
generally do, particularly if the singular end in o or in tore. 
Those which terminate in o have a double termination for both 
numbers, to express the difference of gender ; those in tore have 
two terminations in the singular number, but only one in the 
plural. In English we can change songster to songstress ; and 
in many other like cases we can change the ending of such 
nouns to distinguish the sexes ; but we could not alter the 
words conjurer, friend, nor the generality of such nouns. But 
the Italians can ; and they say, mago, a male conjurer, magi, 
male conjurers, maga, a female conjurer, magjie, female conju- 
rers; and so forth. I will here give some examples. 



Sing. Masc. Plur. Masc. Sing. Fern. 



tnago . . . 
amico . . . 
vicckio . . 
ricco . . . 
nemico . . 
fanciiillo . 
pdvcro . . 
vagabdndo . 
scimnnitillo 
ctigino . . 
compugno . 
mcndico 



. magi . . 
. am id 
. vicchi . . 
. ricchi . . 
. nemici 
. fanciiilli . . 
. poveri . . 
. vagahindl 
. scimunitcUi 
. cugini . , 
. compdgni . 
. mcndici 



inaga . . . 

arnica . . . 

vccchia . . 

ricca . . . 

7ieinica . . 
fancii'illa 

p6vera . . 

vagabunda . 
scimunitclla 

cugina . . 

compagn'a , 

mendica . . 



Plur. Fern. 

maghe, a conjuror 
aniichc, a friend 
vtcchie, an old person 
ricche, a rich person 
?icmiche, an enemy 
fanciulle, a young person 
p6vere, a poor person 
vagaMnde, a vagabond 
scimuniCclle, a simpleton 
engine, a cousin 
compagne, a companion 
mendiche, a mendicant 



But the greater part of the nouns of this description are those 
in tore, in which the feminine is expressed by changing the 



VI.] OF NOUNS. 43 

masculine ore into rice. These all make their plurals in i, both 
masculine and feminine; as, benefattdre, benefactor, bene- 
fattdri, benefactors; and benefattrice, benefactress, benefat- 
tricif benefactresses : so that it will not be necessary to put the 
plural number in giving the following examples. 

Masculine. Feminine. 

adducit&re addttcitrice, a leader 

ballatdre ballatrice, a dancer 

cantathre cantatrice, a singer 

depredatore depredatrice, a depredator 

esecutore esecutrice, an execntor, or executrix 

f'llatbre filatrlce, a spixmer i 

gridatore gridatrice, a bawler 

incantat6re incantatrice, an enchanter, or enchantress 

lusingatSre lusingatrtce, a flatterer 

malfattire malfattrice, an offender 

narratore narratrice, a narrator 

occupatSre occupatrice, an usurper 

poi'tatSre portatrice, a bearer 

quistionatSre .... quistionatrice, a quarreller 

redatbre redatrice, an heir, or heiress 

soggiogatore sjoggiogatrice, a conqueror 

turbatbre ...... turbatrice, a disturber 

uditbre ....... uditrice, a hearer 

vincitbre vincitrice, a victor, or victress 

zelatbre zelatrice, a zealot 

We see, by these examples, that the Italians can much more 
frequently alter the termination of the noun to express the 
sex than we can in English. This change in the termination 
of nouns in tore in the Italian is not, however, always to -be 
made ; for there are a good many such nouns that never admit 
of the change at all, though the greater part of them do 
admit of it. 

There are some nouns which change the masculine terrr 'na- 
tion into essa to form the feminine. Such are the following. 

Masculine Sitigular. Fe7ninine Singular. Masc. and Fern, plurals. 

barbne, a baron barontssa, a baroness barbni, baronesse 

cbnte, a count coyittssa, a countess conti, contisse 

duca, a duke duchtssa, a duchess duci, duchesse 

arctduca, an archduke arciduchcssa, an3irch.6.\xch.ess arciduci, archiducJUsse 

poeta, a poet poetessa, a poetess poeti, poetcsse 

principe, a prince principessa, a princess principi, principisse 

prof eta, a prophet . . ..profetessa, a prophetess . . ..profcii, profctesse 



44 



ETYMOLOGY 



[Chap. 



Of the Articles as employed with the Nouns. 

Masculine Definite Article il, the. 
29. Tlie article il is employed before all nouns of the mascu- 
line gender that begin with a consonant, except when the con- 
sonant is an 5 that is immediately followed by another conso- 
nant. It would be equally proper to say il libra, the book, and 
il sole, the sun ; but not to say il studio, the study, or il sp{cchio, 
the looking glass. 



Singular. 

Nominative, il libra, the book 
Possessive, del libro, of the book 
Dative. af lihro, to the book 

Objective. il lihri, the book 
Ablative. dul libro, from the book 

nel lihro, in tfce book 
col lihro, with the book 

pel libro, for the book 

sttl libro, on the book 



Plurnl. 

Nominative, i llbri, the books 
Possessive, del or de' libri, of the books 
Dative. ai or a' lihri, to the books 

Ohjettive. i libri, the books 
Ablative. dai or da' libri, from the 
books 
nei or ne' lihri, in the books. 
eoi or co* libri, with the 
books 

jiei or pe^ 

books 
stil or sh' 

books 



libri, for the 
libri, on the 



30. Here I have put Nominative, Possessive, Dative^ Objective, 
and Ablative y against the article and noun. These are the 
names of the Cases^ and are placed here only for the sake of 
form ; for, as before mentioned, the subject of Case will be spo- 
ken of in a separate Chapter. (See paragraph 277). — In old au- 
thors we read //, delli, alii, dalli, instead of the above f, dei, ai, 
dai ; but these forms are not now^ in use. — After the prepositi- 
ons fra and trOy between or among, the plural article i is 
frequently omitted, and is left to be understood by the pre- 
position fra or tra having an apostrophe over the final letter ; 
as fra' libri, or tra libri, between or among the books; instead 
of fra i libri, tra i libri. 

Masculine Definite Article lo, the. 

31. The article lo is employed before all nouns masculine 
that begin vsith 5 immediately followed by a consonant, 
and also before all nouns masculine that bejrin with a vowel- 
WTien the noun, begins with a vowel the o of lo is re- 

renched ; and we must say f dngeloy the angel ; Vtlmo, the 



VI.] 



OP NOUNS. 



45 



helmet; Vimperatdre, tbe emperor; Ton6re, the honour ; Vu6mo, 
\ the man ; and not il angelo, il clmo, &c. But, in the case of 
nouns beginning in i, we often find the lo written in full, and 
the i that is the first letter of the noun is dropped ; so Vimperat6re 
might be written lomperatore, and Vingannat6re might be 
/ written longannat6re ; and so forth. — Formerly lo was fre- 
quently employed before nouns beginning with other consonants 
besides the 5 ; but this is not the prabtice now-a-days. Dante, 
for instance, has written " lo mdndo," the world, and " lo 
cielo," heaven ; but modern writers never do this. — This 
article is sometimes employed before nouns beginning with 
a 2 ; as, lo zio, the uncle ; but there is no rule here, either 
for or against the practice, and it seems to be a matter of 
taste, in such cases, whether to use the lo or the il. 

Lo, before 5 with a consonant. 



Si}ig>clar. 
Nom. lo studio, the study 
Poss. dello studio, of the study 
Dat'. alio studio, to the study 
ObJ. lo studio, the study 
Abl. dallo studio, from the study 
nello stzidio, in the study 
collo studio, with the study 
pello studio, for the study 
sullo studio, en the study 



Plural. 
No-m. gli sticdj, the studies 
Poss. degli studj, of the studies 
Dat. agli studj, to the studies 
Ohj. gli studj, the studies 
Abl. dagli studj, from the s'.udies 
negli stiidj, in the studies 
cogli studj, with the studies 
pegli studj, for the studies 
sugli studj, on the studies 



Lo, before a Noun masculine beginning with a vowel. 



Singular. 
Nom. I'angelo, the angel 
Poss. delVangelo, of the angel 
Dat, all'dngelo, to the angel 
Obj. I'angelo, tbe angel 
Abl. dalVungelo, from the angel 
nell'dngelo, in the angel 
coll'angelo, with the angel 
pell'ungelo, for the angel 
sulVungelo, on the angel 



Plural. 
Nom. gli ungeli, the angels 
Poss. degli dngeli, of the angels 
Dat. agli dngeli, to the angels 
Obj. gli dngeli, the angels 
Abl. dagli d7igeli, from the angels 
negli dngeli, in the angels 
cogli dngeli, with the angels 
pegli dngeli, for the angels 
sugli dngeli, on the angels 



23. Before nouns beginning with an i, the plural article gli, 
degli, agli, dagli, negli, cogli, pegli, sugli, drop their final i; as 
in gVimperatdri, the emperors, degV imperatdri, of the emperors, 
agVimperatori to the emperors, dagV imperatdri, from the emper- 
ors,&c. — Gli must be employed before the plural of the noun God : 
it must not be il dio, the god, i dei, the gods, but ildio, the 
god, gli,dei, the gods. 



46 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

Feminine Definite Article la, the. 

33. Tlie article la is employed^)eforc all noun^ of the femi- 
nine gender. When a noun feminine begins with cither of the 
vowels, a, e, i, o, w, the a of /a must be retrenched in the singu- 
lar number; as, Vajiima the soul, delVanima, of the soul, &c. 
Veconomia, the economy, dell' economm, of the economy, &c. 
Vimpcratr'ice, the empress, delVimperatncey of the empress, &c. 
Vonda, the wave, delfonda, of the wave, &c. ; Vudi^nza, tlie 
audience, deirudicnza, of the audience, &c. But it is somewhat 
a point unsettled whether this should be the case in the plural. 
Some grammarians tell us that we should write Vanime^ the 
souls, delfanime, of the spuls, &c.; Vimperatrici, the empresses, 
deirimperatr'ici, of the empresses, &c. ; instead of le anime, 
dellc anime ; le imperatnei, delle imperatrici. The generality of 
grammarians say that the article, here, should be spelled in 
full ; and though it may be ver}' fequently found written other- 
wise, still, in prose at all events, we shall most commonly see 
it \M-itten in full. — When the article la comes before a noun 
which begins with the vowel e, the e in the plural article 
le must be omitted, to prevent the harshness that would be oc- 
casioned by the coming together of the two e's : as in Vemintnza, 
the eminence, which, in the plural, must be Veinincnze ; and 
televazi6ne, the elevatioii, which must be Velevazioni. But, 
obsen'^e, if the noun be one of those which do not change their 
terminations from the singular to express their plural, then the 
e of the plural article must be preserved, in order to distinguish 
the plural from the singular number : as in feffigie, the effigy, 
le eff'ig'ie, the effigies ; Vestremitd, the extremity, le estremitd, 
the extremities ; Venfusi, the emphasis, le enfdsi, the emphasises ; 
tetUy the age, leeta, the ages; Veclissi, the eclipse, le eclissi, 
the eclipses. The Editor of Galignanis grammar has laid it 
down, that, if there be an adjective employed with any of 
such nouns as these in the plural, we may then use the / with 
an apostrophe ; because, as he observes, the termination of the 
adjective is sufficient to inform us of the number of the noun. 
So that, if we use Vet a matura, the ripe age, we may say, 
in the plural, Veta mature y as well as le eta mature. 



VI.] 



OP NOUNS. 



47 



La, before a noun 

Singular. 
Norn, la casa, the house 
Pass, della casa, of the house 
Dot. alia casa, to the house 
Obj. la casa, the house 
Abl. dalla casa, from the house 
nella casa, in the house 
colla casa, with the house 
pella casa, for the house 
sulla casa, on the house 



beginning with a consonant. 

Plural. 
'Norm, le case, the houses 
Pass, delle case, of the houses 
Dat. alle case, to the houses 
le case, the houses 
dalle case, from the houses 
nelle case, in the houses 
colle case, with the houses 
pelle case, for the houses 
sulle case, on the houses 



ObJ. 
Abl. 



La, before a noun beginning- with a vowel. 



Singular. 
Noni. Vunhna, the soul 
Poss. dell'anhna, of the soul 
Dat. dlViDiUna, to the soul 
Obj. Vuu'ima, the soul 
Abl. dall'anima, from the soul 
nell'anima, in the soul 
coll'un'ima, with the sou) 
pell'nnlma, for the soul 
sulVunima, on the soul 



o 

Plural, 
Nom. la, or I', anime,'the souls 
Poss. delle, or delP, unime, of the souls 
Dat. alle, or all', unime, to the souls 
ObJ. le, or I', unime, the souls 
Abl. dalle, or dull', d7ilme, from the souls 
iiclle, or «e/^', unime, in the souls 
co^^c, or coll', unime, with the souls 
pelle, or pcW, itnirne, for the souls 
sulle, or 52f /r, dnime, on the souls 



La, before a noun beginning with a vowel and of only one 

termination. 



Singular. 
Nam. I'eqlissi, the eclipse 
Poss. dell'eclissi, of the eclipse 
Dat. all'eclissi, to. the eclipse 
ObJ. I'eclissi, the eclipse 
Abl. dalVecllssi, from the eclipse 
nell'eclissi, in the eclipse 
colVeclissi, with the eclipse 
pell'eclissi, for the eclipse 
.siiWeclissi, on the eclipse 



Plural. 
Nom,. le eclissi, the eclipses 
Poss. delle eclissi, of the eclipses 
Dat. alle eclissi, to the eclipses 
ObJ. le eclissi, the eclipses 
Abl. dalle eclissi, from the eclipses 
nelle eclissi, in the eclipses 
colle eclissi, with the eclipses 
pelle eclissi, for the eclipses 
sulle eclissi, on the eclipses 



34. I have already observed, in speaking of the Etymology of 
Articles, that the Indefinite Article un has four varieties of 
spelling. Before a noun masculine, whether the noun begin 
with a consonant or with a vowel, the article is written un ,- as, 
un libro, a book ; un cingelo, an angel ; but, if the noun begin 
with an s, and the 5 be immediately followed by another con- 
sonant, then we must employ uno; as, uno studio, a study, una 
specchio, a looking glass. Before a noun of the feminine gender 
that begins with a consonant, una is employed ; as, una sedia, a 
chair ; una donna, a woman. If the feminine noun begin with a 
vowel, then it will require un with an apostrophe, as, unanima 
a soul ; unonda^ a wave. 



4S ETYMOLOGT [Chap. 



CHAPTER VII. 

« 

Etymology of Pronouns. 

35. The Pronouns will be divided into six classes ; namely, 
Personal Pronouns, Possessive Pronouns, Relative Pronouns, 
Demonstrative Pronouns, Interrogative Pronouns, and Indetermi- 
nate Pronouns. 

36. " PERSONAL PRONOUNS are those which take the 
*' place of nouns. This office is, indeed, performed by all pro- 
" nouns ; and hence comes their name. But, the other pro- 
*' nouns do not supply the place of nouns in the same way, 
** and in a manner so complete. There are three Persons : for 
'* instance, / am wTitting to you about him. You see, then, 
** that the pronoun wliich represents the person that speaks is 
** in the frst person ; that which stands in place of the name 
*' of the person spoken to, is in the second person ; and that 
" which stands in the place of the name of the person spoken 
'* of, is in the third person. This circumstance of person is a 
" matter to be strictly attended to : because, as you will by- 
" and-by see, the verbs vary their endings to correspond with 
^' the person of the pronoun."* — In the Etymology of these 
Pronouns, we have to consider the subjects of Gender and Num- 
ber, besides that of Person. The 1st person io, /, makes noi 
in the plural; the 2d person tu, thou, makes voi in the plural; 
and the 3d person egli, he, or ella, she, makes ^glino or ^lleno 
in the plural. The 1st and the 2d persons make no difference 
in the spelling to denote gender ; but the 3d does, both in the 
singular and in the plural number, as will be seen. 

* Cobbett's French Gram5iar, paragraph 89. 



VI.] 



OP PRONOUNS. 



49 



1st Person, singular and plural, of both genders. 
Singular. Plural. 



Nam. I, io 
Poss. of me, di me 
Dat. to me, a me, or mi 
Obj. me, me, or mi 
Abl. from me, da me 



Nom. we, noi 

Poss. of us, di noi 

Dat. to us, a noi, or ci, or w<f 

Obj. us, woi, or c?, or ne 

Abl. from us, da noi 



2d Person, singular and plural, of both genders. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. thou, tu Nom. you, voi 



Poss. of thee, c?2 te 
Dat. to thee, a, te, or ?2 
06/. thee, te or fz 
^6/. from thee, da te 



Poss. of you, di voi 
Dat. to you, a voi, or vi 
Obj. you, i;oz, or vi 
Abl. from you, c?a voz 



3d Person, singular and plural, of the Masculine gender. 



Singular. 

Nom. he, egli, or ei 
Poss. of him, di lui 
Dat. to him, a lui, or ^^z 
Obj. him, Zmz, 27, or lo 
Abl. from him, £?a lui 



Plural. 
iVoTW. they, eijr/mo 
Poss. of them, c?? /oro 
Dat. to them, a /oro, or loro 
Obj. them, loro, li, or gli 
- -46/. from them, da loro 



3d Person, singular and plural, of the Feminine gender. 



. Singular. 

Nom. she,"ella 
Poss. of her, di lei 
Dat. to her, a lei, or le 
Obj. her, Zez, or la 
Abl. from her, c?a lei 



Plural. 

Nom. they, ^//ewo 
Poss. of them, c?i /oro 
Dat. to them, a loro, or /oro 
06/. them, loro or Ze 
^6/. from them, da loro 



These two third persons, he and ^Ae, may be expressed, also^ 
in another way, as follows : ' 



50 



ETYMOLOGY 



[Chap. 



3d Person, singular and plural, of the Masculine gender. 
SiKOULAR. Plural. 



Nom. he, esso 

Poss. of him, di esse 

Dat. to him, a (sso 

Ohj. him, esso 

A hi. from liira, da esso 



Nom. they, essi, 
Poss. of them, di essi 
Dat. to them, a essi 
Ohj. them, essi 
Abl. from them, da essi 



3d Person, singular and plural, of the Feminine gender. 
Singular. Plural. 



Nom. she, essa 
Poss. of her, di essa 
Dat. to her, a essa 
Ohj. her, essa 
Abl. from her, da essa 



Nom. they, esse 
Poss. of them, di esse 
Dat. to them, a esse 
Ohj. them, esse 
Abl. from them, da esse 



37. These pronouns, esso, essa, essi, esse, may be used 
whether in speaking- of persons or things ; but egli, eglino, 
ella, ^lleno, &c., belong, more properly, to persons than 
to things. In Italian, however, there cannot be made that 
same distinction between persons and things which we make, 
in English, by the emplo\inent of the word it. Our pronoun 
it can be applied to something of the neuter gender only, 
which [render is not knoWn in the Italian. In Italian we 
must use a ^e or a she in speaking of every thing, whether it 
be animate or inanimate, person or thing. We, in English, 
do, to be sure, in speaking of animals, frequently distinguish 
the sex by the use of the pronouns he or she ; but in every case 
of that kind it would be perfectly proper to use the it, if it 
were not our object to make such distinction ; and, in speaking 
of inanimate things we always should do so, although some- 
times even here we use a pronoun of the masculine or feminine 
gender. We call a horse he, a mare she, and a ship we call 
she : in the tw^o former instances the use of the pronouns he and 
she is necessary to distinguish the male from the female ; but, 
in the latter, it is a mere matter of caprice of sailors ; and is, 
indeed, nothing more than a \'ulgarism. 



VI.] ' OP PRONOUNS. ^ 51 

38. As respects the use of these pronouns, it is necessary to 
notice the following observations : 

is^.T^Instead of io, I, the poets frequently make use of i' ; as, 
Torna, Amarilli, che presa i sono, come back Amarillis, 
for / am taken: Gua. P. F. /' non piang^va, / 
wept not: Dan. In. 

2d.— ^Instead of ei, he, the poets frequently use e ; as, Ed e' 
si stava in se tutto raccolto, and he remained quite 
wrapped up in himself: Pet. S. 

3d. — Instead of not, we or us, and voi, ye or you, the poets 
have, for the sake of rhyme, used nui and vui ; as, II 
cavalier ch'era con nui, the knight who was with us: 
Ari. O. F. — E gridolor, dove venite vui, and he cried out 
to them, where do ye come: Ari. O. F. 

4th. — Instead of eglino, they, some use egli ; as, Perche 
egli stanno £|J tutto con la volontk di quelli cittadini, &c. ' 
because they remain entirely at the will of those citizens : 
Mac. p. 

5th. — Also, instead of the plural eglino, ei or e have been 
used ; as, E tre di gli chiamo poich' e' fur morti, and 
for three days I called to them after they were dead : 
Dan. In. 

6th. — And instead of egli, the singular, and eglino, the plu- 
ral, many old authors use ello and elli ; as, E che tu 
abbia tutta la rendita del monasterio, ed ello abbia quella 
del mulino, and that thou mayest have all the revenue of 
the monastery, and he that of the mill: Sac. N. — E 
veggio ben, quant' elli a schivo m'hanno, and I see plainly 
how much they dislike me : Pet. S. — Piangevan elli, they 
wept : Dan. In. 

7th. — Elli has, also, by some of the poets, been used in the 

' singular number, instead of egli, he ,- and now and then we 
find 4llino used instead of eglino, the plural they. 

8th. — Instead of elleno, the plural feminine they, old au- 
thors very frequently use elle • as, Ed elle si levdro im- 
mantenente, and they (the ladies) arose immediately : 
Ari. O. F. — Mostrarono (le armi mercenarie) quello ch' 
elle furono, they (the mercenary arms) showed what they 
were: Mac. P. 

•d2 



52 KTYMOLOOY [Chap. 

9th. — Ella is, in old authors and in pome parts of Italy at 
this day, very frc(niCTitly written and pronounced la; as. 
La qual cosa era si difficile, che la fu ciig-ione della rovina 
di molti ; which thing was so difficult, that it was a cause 
of the ruin of many : Mac. P. 

10th. — And, consistently with this, those who write la in- 
stead of ellttj write, also, le instead of /lleno or elle ; as, La 
capione di questo fe, che le non hanno altro amore, &c. the 
cause of this is, that they (mercenary arms) have no other 
attachment, &c. Mac. P. 

39. The pronouns oneself, himself, herself, and themselves, 
are all expressed, in Italian, by the little word si, which is em- 
l)loyed in all the Cases, excepting only the Nominative. 

Pronoun si, oneself, SfC. Singular and Plural. 

Poxft. nf onoself, himself, herself, or theraselves, di .te 

Dfit. to oneself, himself, herself, or themselves, a se, or si 

(lf)J. oneself, himself, herself, or themselves, se, or si 

Abl. from oneself, himself, herself, or themselves, da se 

Tliis little pronoun si is a word of great importance, and one 
in constant use. The manner in which it is employed, and the 
circumstance of its having no Nominative Case, will be explain- 
ed further on, in Syntax, (see Paragraph 119.) 

40. The word self or selves is expressed, also, in another 

way ; namely, by stesso, and by medesimo ; which are made to 

change their termination to express Gender and Number : 

stesso, stessa, self, masculine and feminine singular; stessi, 

slesse, selves, masculine and feminine plural ; medesimo, 

medesime, self, masculine and feminine singular ; medesimi, 

medesime, selves, masculine and feminine plural. These, to 

express self, or selves, m.ust have, along with them, one of the 

other personal pronouns, but they do not take two pronouns, first 

the personal pronoun, and then the possessive pronoun, as our 

words self And selves do. The Italians say io stesso, I self tu 

stesso, thou self, egli stesso, or ella stessa, he, or she, self, 8fc. and 

not I myself, thou IhyselJ, he, or she, herself, &c. Thus, they say, 

io stesso vi dire), / myself wiW tell you; and not io mio stesso vi 

dir6. Tliese words, stesso and medesimo, are, it must be observed, 

employed also as adjectives, in the sense of our word same,- 



VI.] OF PRONOUNS. 53 

as, lo stesso giomo, the same day; la stessa cosa, the same 
thing ; gli stessi giorni, the same days ; le stesse cose, the 
same things; or, il medesimo giorno, the same day; la me- 
desima cosa, the same thing; i medesimi giorni, the same days ; 
le medesime cose, the same things. 

It is often optional, to use either the word se or si alone, 
in any of the Cases except the Nominative, to express our 
oneself, himself, herself, themselves, or to use stesso or medesimo 
in addition to it. As : n^ si accorse con questa delibcrazione 
che faceva se debole. Mac. P. Nor did he perceive that by 
this plan he rendered himself weak. It might have been, 
faceva se stesso, or, faceva se mtdesiino, with equal propriety. 

41. Along with the preposition con, with, the pronouns me, 
me, te, thee, and se, oneself, himself, herself, themselves, are 
often joined ; and then the ?i of con is retrenched. The 
Italian writers put meco, with me, teco, with thee, seco, with 
oneself, himself, herself, or themselves ; instead of con me, con 
ie, con se. As, for example : egli e meco, he is with me ; noi 
eravamo teco, we were with thee ; ei lo portava seco, he carried 
it with him, or himself. And the words stesso and medesimo 
may be joined to the meco, teco, seco ; as, meco stesso, or 
medesimo, with me myself; teco, stesso, or medesimo, vv^ith thee 
thyself; seco stesso, or medesimo, with hiBa himself, &;c. Be- 
sides the CO, which, of itself, means the same as with, the 
Italians frequently use the word con : as, con meco, with me ; 
con teco with thee ; con seco, with himself, &c. 

Some of the poets haved used nosco, and vosco, instead of 
ton noi, with us, and con voi, with you ; as : 

quinci mi tolga Hence let your pity take me, and con- 
La pieta vostra, e vosco m' adducete. duct me with you. 

Car. E. I 

42. There is one thing more to be observed, as respects these 
personal pronouns ; and that is the use of esso joined in one word 
with the preposition di, the i of di being dropped. When so 
used, esso, essa, essi, esse, mean the same as the person 
himself or the person herself, the persons themselves. Thus 
the Italians say, questo b desso, this is he himself, questa e 
dessa, this is she herself, questi, or queste, sono dessi, or desse, 
these are they themselves : 



.54 



ETTMOLOGT 



[Chap. 



Tu Don parli, so' dessa, o non nc' de^sa ? 

GOA. P. F. 



Thou spoakrnt not ; art thou ihc, or 
art thou not ahe 1 (or she htrsetf.) 



It would seem that, in tjiis case, there is an ellipsis, that 
there are some words left to be understood ; and that what is 
meaned by desso, dessa, dessi, dcsse, is, la persona di esso, the 
person of him, la persona di essa, the person of her, le persons 
di essi, or di esse, the persons of them. 

43. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. These are so called, be- 
cause they are used to express possession ; as my, thy, his, herg", 
their J which all attribute possession of some kind to the persons 
or things to which they are applied. In these Pronouns, also, 
we have to consider, Per.?o«, Gender, and Xi/mhcr. Tlie Gender 
and Number are very different in the Italian from what they 
are in Enghsh. We make no difference in the 1st or 2d Per- 
sons of cur possessive pronouns to express either gender or 
number ; but we do so in the 3d Person ; and then we make 
the gender and number to agree with the person who is spoken 
of as the possessor. We say, his hat, her bonnet, its situation, 
their house ; and, in the plural, the j-ronoun still remains cbe 
the same : though the termination of the noun, or name of the 
thing possessed, changes to express number, that of the pronoun 
does not, but continues the same; as, his hats, her honnets, its situ- 
ations, their houses. Now, the ItaUans make the possessive 
pronoun to agree, both in gender and in number, not with the 
possessor, but with \h.Q thing possessed ; and that throughout, 
from beginning to end. 

Masculine Singular. Masculine Plural. 



my, mio 

thy, tuo 

his, her, or its, suo 

our, nostro 

your, vostro 

their, loro, or suo 



my, miei 

thy, tu6i 

his, her, or its, su6i 

our, nostri 

your, vostri 

their, loro, or suoi 



vi.] of pronouns. 

Feminine Singular. Feminine Plural. 



55 



my, mia 

thv, tua 

his, her, or its, sua 

our, nostra 

your, vostra 

their, loro, or sua 



my, mte 

thy, tue 

his, her, or its, sue 

our, nostre 

your, vostre 

their, /oro, or swe 



Thus, we must say, suo padre, Ms father, suo padre, her 
father, suo padre, its father ; and sua madre, his mother, sua 
madre, her mother, stia madre, its mother ; sue case, his 
houses, sue case, her houses, sue case, its houses: and so on, 
always maldng the possessive pronoun agree in gender and 
number with the thing spoken of as possessed, and not with the 
person spoken of as the possessor. The pronoun their 
may be expressed, either by loro, which answers for both 
genders and both numbers, or by sua, suoi, for the singular 
and plural masculine, and sua, sue, for the singular and 
pliu*al feminine. Loro never changes its termination ; so 
we may say, for the mascuhne, either loro padre, their 
father, or suo padie ; loro padri, their fathers, or sudi padri : 
and, for the feminine, either loro casa, .their house, or sua 

casa ; loro case, their houses, or sue case. The Pronouns 

tuoi and suoi, are, for the sake of rhyme, sometimes spelled tui 
and sui just as noi and voi (as mentioned under Paragraph 
38) are sometimes spelled md and vui: 



Se basta a' falli sui 
Per difesa portar I'eseTupio d'altrui. 

Met. 0. 

Deh ! uon espor I'o^getto 

Dei dolci aifetti tui. Met., 0. 



If it is enoxtgh for his uiisdeeds to bring 
the example of others. 

Ah! do not expose the object of thy 
dear affections. 



43. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. These are called relative, 
because they relate, or refer, to something that has gone 
before in the sentence ; as, the man who is here, the horse 
which I saw, the tree that was cut down. Here the who, which, 
and that, relate, or carryback, to theruan, the horse and the tree. 
These. three are all the pronouns of this class that we have in 
our language: in Italian there are, che or cui, who, that, 
which ; guale,^ who, that, which ; and onde, of which, by which > 



56 



BTYMOLOGY 



[Cliap. 



with which, or whcrc])y. Che and mi arc regarded as being 
nearly the same word, as far as sense goes; only cui can 
never be used in the Nominative Case, though it may be so in 
all the others. These make no change to denote cither gender 
or number. 

Chk and Cui, singular nnd plural, masculine ond feminine. 

]Vom. r/ic, who, that, or which 

Pass, di che, or di cui, of whom, or which 

Dat. a che, or a cut, or cui, to whom or which ' 

Obj. rhc, or cui, whom, that, or which 

Abl. da che, or da cui, frora whom, or which 

Quale changes its termination to denote number ; and, to de- 
note gender, takes the Definite Article before it ; as follows : 



Singula n Mascvmne. 

Xom. il quale, who, that, or which 
Pass, del quale, of whom, or which 
Uat. al quale, to whom, or which 
Obj. il quale, whom, that, or which 
Abl. dal quale, from whom, or which 

Singular Feminine. 

Nom. la quale, who, that, or which 
Poss. della quale, of whom, or which 
Dat. alia quale, to whom, or which 
Obj. la quale, whom, that, or which 
Abl. dalla quale, from whom,or which 



Plural Mascul^e. 

\om. i quali, who, that, or which ' 
Poss. dei qitali, of whom, or which 
J)at. ai quali, to whom, or whicli 
Ohj. i quali, whom, that, or which 
Abl. dai quali, from whom, or which 

Plural Feminine. 

Nom. le quali, who, that, or which 
Poss. delle quali, of whom, or which 
Dat. alle quali, to whom, or which 
Ohj. le quali, whom, that, or which 
Abl. dalle quali, fToviwhoia,OT which 



Onde is a word which includes, within itself, the preposition 
and the pronoun ; and it has the same sense as that of del quale 
or delta quale, dei quali or delle quali, of which, di che or di cui, 
of which ; or of rfa^ quale or dalla quale, dai quali or dalle quali, 
da che or da cui, from, or by which, or of col quale, &c. con che, 
con cui, with, or by which, or oi pel quale, &c. per cui, by, or 
through which ; as in these examples : 



Quei sospiri, oiid' io nudriva il core. 

Pet. S. 

1 begli occhi <md' io fui percosso. 

Pet. S. 

la speme, 

Ed ogni laccio onde' 1 mio cor i avvinto. 

Pf.T. C. 

Per qnella via onde era venuto sen' 
usct della chieaa. Boo. D. 



Those sighs, with, or on, which 1 fed 
my heart. 

The heautiful eyes by, or with, which 
I was struck. 

Hope, and every hond tcith, or by which, 
my heart is tied. 

By that way by, or through, which he 
had come, he went awny out of the 
church. 



VI.] 



OF PRONOUNS. 



57 



The word onde has, also, other significations; it sometimes 
means the same as whence or from where ; as, onde vei\ite voi ? 
whence do yoM come? It means, also, wherewith or where- 
withal; as, ho molti debiti, e non ho onde possa soddisfarli, I 
have many debts, and I have not wherewithal to pay them. 

44. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS are so called be- 
cause they are used to point out, or identify with precision, the 
persons or things which they represent ; and in English they 
are, this, these, that, those. In the Italian language these pro- 
nouns are much more numerous than they are in the Englij^li. 



QuESTO, this. 



Masculine Singular. 

Nom. questo, this 
Poss. di questo, of this 
Dat. a questo, to this 
Obj. questo, this 
Abl. da questo, from this 



Masculine Plukai, 



Nom. questi, these 
Poss. di questi, of these 
Dat. a questi, to these 
Obj. questi, these 
Abl. da questi, from these 



Feminine Singular. 

Nom. qiiesta, this 
Poss. di questa, of this 
Dat. a questa, to this 
Obj. questa, this 
Abl. da questa, from this 



Feminine Plural 

Nom. queste, these 
Poss. di queste, of these 
Dat. a queste, to these 
Obj. queste, these 
Abl. da queste, from these 



QuELLo, that. 



Masculine Singular. 

Nom. quello, that 
Poss. di quello, of that 
Dat. a quello, to that 
Obj. quello, that 
Abl. da quello, from that 



Masculine Plural 

Nom. quelli, those 
Poss. di quelli, of those 
Dat. a quelli, to these 
Obj. quelli, those 
Abl. da quelli, from those 



Feminine Singular. 

Nom. quella, that 
Poss. di quella, of that 
Dat. a quella, of that 
Obj. quella, that 
Abl. da quella, from that 



Feminine Plural. 

Nom. quelle, those 
Poss. di quelle, of those 
Dat. a quelle, to those 
Obj. quelle, those 
Abl. da quelle, fioru those 



D 5 



58 fiTYMCLOGY [Chap. 

Cosm, he, or thin man ; Costei, she, or this woman. 

MascitUiic Singular. 

.\'om. costui, he, or this man 

Posx. di rostui, of liini, or thiH man 

Dat. a rostui, to him, or thin man 

Ohj. rosliii, liini, or this mati 

Ahl. da lostai, from him, or thU man 

Feminine Singular. 

Nom. cnxtel, she, or this woman 
Poss. d\ costei, of her, or this woman 
Dat, a costti, to her, or this woman 
OhJ. costei, she, or this woman 
Ahl. da costei, from her, or this woman 

CosTORO, thei/, or these men, or these women. 

Masculine and Feminine Plural. 

A'ow. costoro, they, or these men, or these women 
Pass, di costoro, of them, or these men, or these women 
Dat. a costoro, to them, or tliese men, or these women 
Obj. costoro, they, or these me«, or these women 
Alil. da costoro, from tlicm, or these men, or these women 

CoLui, he, or tluit man; Colei, she, or that woman. 

Masculine Singular, 

Nom. colui, he, or that man 

Pass, di colui, of him, or that man 

Dat. a colui, to him, or that man 

Obj, colui, him, or that man 

Abl. da colui, from him, or that man 

Feminine Singular. 

\om. colei, she, or that woman 

Poss. di colei, of her, or that woman -» 

Dat. a colei, to her, or that woman ^ 

Obj. col< /, her, or that woman 

Abi. da culei, from her, or that woman 

CoLORO, they, or these men, or these women. 
Masculine and Feminine Plural. 

Nom, eoloro, they, or those men, or those women 
Poss, di eoloro, of them, or those men, or those women 
Dat, a eoloro, to them, or those men, or those women 
Obj. eoloro, they, or those men, or those women 
Abl. da eoloro, from them, or thoie men, or those worn, i 



VII.] OP PRONOUNS. 59 

Besides these, tliere are, cotesto, cotesta, that, masculine and 
feminine singular, and cotesti, coteste, those, masculine and 
feminine plural ; codesto, codesta, that, masculine and feminine 
singular, and codesti, codeste, those, masculine and feminine plu- 
ral ; coiestui, cotestei, he and she, or that person, masculine 
and feminine singular, and cotestoro, they, or those persons, 
masculine and feminine plural. The word quello, that, is fre- 
quently written quel ; and, instead of quello, quelli, that, those, 
the Italians often use quegli for the singular quello, and qnegli 
quel, or que' for the plural quelli. The plural questi, also, may 
be used as of the singular number. 

These pronouns, which represent the person or thing as being 
at a distance, and have the sense of that person or tiling, those 
persons or things, differ as regards the degree of distance they 
express, or local situation of the thing spoken of. Thus, while 
,questo, questa, questi, queste, costul, costei, cosloro, all represent 
the person or thing as being near the speaker, and cotesto, co- 
testa, cotesti, coteste, cotestui, cotestei, cotestoro, all represent 
the person or thing as being nearer to the person spoken to ; 
quello or quel, quella, quelli, quelle, quegli, quel, colui, colei, 
• coloro, give us to understand that the person or thing spoken 
of is somewhat at a distance from both the speaker and the 
person spoken to. 

The pronoun cib means the same as that or this ; and it never 
changes to denote either gender or number, but is always used 
in a neuter sense, and in the singular number : cib mi piace, 
that, or this, pleases me; nondite cio, do not say that, or this; 
here the sense of do is pretty nearly the 'same as that of questo, 
this : questo mi piace, this pleases me, non dite questo, do not 
say this; only that, while questo always means this, cio is 
generally taken in the sense of that. With the relative pronoun 
che, we may use either cib, or quello : cib che, that which, or, 
quello, or quel che, that which. When, in our language, we use 
the word what, instead of that ivhich, or the thing which, we 
may translate it, in Italian, T^y either cib che, or quel che ; as, 
you know what I told you, meaning, the thing which I told you, 
voi sapete cib che, or quel che vi dissi. 

Questi and guegli, in the masculine singular, are very com- 
monly used to express he, or this man, and he, or that man ,- as :. 



CO ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

Quciti or Maconc adorn, cfu Christiano : Tas. G. L. He, or this 
man now adores Maliomct, and was a Cliristian. Qiiegli abl)iso^na 
di poco, clic poco desidcra : 15oc. D. He or that man wants little, 
who desires little. And also obser\'e, that qnesti and quegli, or 
quest i and qurllo, are to be employed to express this man and 
that man, or this owe and that one, when we mean the former oxxA 
the latter ; as, questi vienedi Londra, e quegli di Parigi, this one 
comes from London, and that one from Paris, 

The poets have written esto, esia, esti, este, instead of questo, 
quesia, qnesti, queste. So wc read in Dante, esti tormenti, 
these torments ; se vuoi campar d'esto luogo selvag-g'io, if thou 
wilt escape from this desert place ; chi" h esta donna, who is this 
lady ? And, before the words mane, or mattfna, morning, sera, 
evening, and notte, night, it has always been, and is, the prac- 
tice to say stamane or stamattinn, this morning, stasera, this 
evening, stanotte, this night, or to-night; instead of quesia 
mattina, quesia sera, quesia notte. 

Instead of colui and colei, we read, in many old writers, lui 
and lei ; as : la voglia che lui e lei hanno, &c. Mac. C. The 
desire which he and she (or that man and that woman) have. 
Lui h ricco, lui ha bclla donna : Mac. C. he is rich, he has a 
handsome wife. Cercando lei ch'era loro Diva : Ari. O. F. 
Seeking her who was their goddess. Marco solo visse e mon 
onoratissimo, perchb lui succed^ all imperio, &c. Mac. P. 
Marcus only lived and died honourably, because he succeeded 
to the empire, &c. 

I have translated costui, costei, colui, colei, costoro, coloro, by 
he, or this man, she, or tliis woman, he, or that man, she, or that 
woman, they, or these men, or these uamen, they, or those men, 
or those women : but these pronouns, it must be observed, do 
not always apply merely to persons, but they apply also to things^ 
whether animate or inanimate, as do the other pronouns, 
cotesto, codesio, cotestui, &c. 

45. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. These are so called 
because they are used in asking questions. They are, che, what, 
quale, who, which, or what, and chi, who. The two former we 
have had to notice before, and quale and chi belong, also, to 
the next class of Pronouns that we shall have to notice. Tlie 
mentioning of these pronouns under this head is little more 



VIL] 



OF PRONOUNS. 



61 



than a matter of form. Che, as an interrogative, always means 
what ; as, che volete ? what do you want ? che uomo ^ costui ? 
what man is this ? Quale is thus used : quale siete voi ? who, 
or what are you ? quale strada bisogna tenere ? which, or what 
road must we go ? And chi, as an interrogative pronoun, has 
always the sense of who or whom ; as, chi e questa donna ? who 
is this lady ? a chi avete parlato ? to whom have you spoken ? 

46. INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. These are so called, 
because, compared with the other pronouns, they detennine less 
distinctly, do not so far identify the person or thing to which 
they are applied. The following is a list of them. Some of 
them wiU require a particular notice in syntax : for which see 
paragraph 152. 

Singular. 



Masc. 



Fern . 



Masc. 



Plural. 
' Fern. 



no one, 
no ones, 
or none, 

nothing, 

such one, 
or ones 



}{ 



all, every \ 
one, or body j 



nesstato 
nissurto 
veruno 
nh'oio . 
nulla . 

niente 

talano 
tale . 

tiitto , 



nessuna 
nissuna 
veriina . 
nluna .- 
idilla . 



taliina 
tale . 



some one 
or ones 



■} 



tutta 

alcuna 
qualcuna 



ralcuno . 
qualciino 
\ qualchediino qualcheduna 
{^qicale 



one,or a per- 
son 

the one, or 
the ones 



the other 
the others 

another, 
others 



every one 

few 

many 



} 
} 

r] 



uno 



Vuno 



Valtro 



1 ^un altro 
J I altri, or < 



quale 



una 



I' una 



Valtra 



un^ ultra 



or altriti 

ogniina 



nessum 
/lissiini 
veriini 
niuni . 
nulli . 



taluni 
titli .- 



. tutti . . 

alcuni . . 
qualcujii . 
qualcheduni 
qudli . . .. 



gli uni 



gli altri 



nessune 

nitsune 

verune 

nii'jne 

nidle 



. talune 
, tali 

tutte 

alciine 
qualcUne 
qualcheduna 
qudli 



le une 



le altre 



Mtri, or altrid 

pSchi . . . 
milti . . 



pSche 
tndltf 



62 



ETYMOLOGY 



[Chap. 



any onf, 
who, orscnic 
people 

whoever, 

whosoever, 

wbomaoever 

or 
whicbevcr 

each, or 
every one 



Singular. 
Masc. 



chl 



chirhcsla, 

c/iicchessia 

rhiiinque 

qiialiniche 

quiiliinque 



Hciasci'nio . 
ciiischeduno 
cad u no . . 




whate 
whatsoe 

or 
whichever 



vcr, ^ 
oevcr, ' 



both 



qunli'uiche 
qiiabinque 
(jiKiLsliiglia 
qualsi.isla 
qual che 
che chc 

" {imbo 
dmbe 
umbi 
ambcdiio 
J ambedue 
ambedui 
amendue 
amenduni, 
tiitti e due 



Fern. 



cutxciina 

liasclttduna 

cadiina 



yMasc. and Fern. 



J 
, . tiUte e du£. Fern. 



VIII.] OP ADJECTIVES. 03 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Etymology of Adjectives. 

47 . What we have to learn in the Etymology of this part of 
speech, is,_ first, the change of form to which it is liable in 
order to express gender and number ; and, then, the way in 

- which the degrees of Adjectives are expressed, which degrees 
are, as in English, three in number, namely, the Positive, the 
Comparative, and the Superlative. 

48. GENDER. Tliis is a very simple matter. All Adjec- 
tives in Italian terminate in one or other of the vowels o and e; 
with a very few exceptions. 

Rule 1 . — The Adjectives ending in a change their termination 
to a to express the feminine gender ; as, I'uomo vecchio, the 
old man, la donna vecchia, the old woman. 

Rule 2. — The Adjectives ending in e are the same in both 
genders, and undergo no change to distinguish the masculine 
from the feminine ; as I'uomo laud^vole, the praiseworthy 
man, la donna laudevole, the praiseworthy woman. 

49. NUMBER. The Number, also, is very simple, and is 
agi'eeable to the rules relating to nouns. 

Rule 1. — All Adjectives ending in o have four terminations ; 
two for the singular and two for the plural : the singular is in 
Oj for the masculine, and in a, for the feminine ; the plural is in 
i, for the masculine, and in e, for the feminine ; as, Tuomo 
ricco, the rich man ; la donna ricca, the rich woman ; gli 
uomini ricchi, the rich men; le donne ricche, the rich women. 

Rule 2. — AU Adjectives ending in e have two terminations'; 
one for the singular and one for the plural : the singular in e, 
for both masculine and feminine, and the plural in i, for both 
masculine and feminine ; as, I'uomo laudevole, the praise- 



G4 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

worthy man ; la donna Inndnole, the praiseworthy woman ; 
gli uomini laudivoli, the praise worthy men; ledonne/«i/(/<^o/i, 
the praiseworthy women. 

50. Tliough Adjectives are, as respects their terminations, 
almost the same as nouns, it must he observed that, whenever 
the Adjective ends in ia for the singular feminine, it must always 
make ie for the plural feminine. Thus, vecchio, old, which makes 
vecchio, for the ma^-culine singular, vecchi, for the mascuhne 
plural, and vecchia for the feminine singular, must make 
vecchic for the feminine plural, and not vecche. So malvagio, 
wicked, must be mo/i-agio, malua^i, malvagia, malvagie ; and 
not malvage, in the feminine plural. xVt Paragraph 28. I have 
observ'ed, that the nouns ending in ia in the singular, generally 
change ia to e in the forming of their plurals : but, with Ad- 
jectives in ia it is never the e alone, but always ie, in the 
plural. 

The plural Adjectives sundry, divers, several, are expressed by 
parecchi, for the masculine, and by parecchie for the feminine 
gender; as parecchi uomini, several men; parecchie donne, 
several women. The Adjective qualche, some or any, never 
changes its termination to denote gender or number, and 
it can be used only with nouns in the singular nnmher. The Ad- 
jective ogni, every or each, does, also, always remain the same 
in both genders : as, ogni uomo, every man ; ogni donna, every 
woman. And assai, many, much, or a good many, never changes 
to denote either gender or number ; as, assai vino, much 
wine, assai uomini, many men, assai felicita, much happiness, 
assai volte, many times. The words /jaW, equal, alike, or even, 
and dispari, unequal, unlike, or uneven, have only the one ter- 
mination in i, though they are applied both in the singular and 
plural number, as well as in both genders ; as pari numero, 
equal number, pari numeri, equal numbers, pari eta, equal age, 
pari etk, equal ages; dispari ' nxmvero , unequal number, dispari 
numeri, unequal numbers, dispari et^, unequal age, dispari etk 
unequal ages. 

51 . The Adjectives of Number, and those of Numerical Order, 
are as in the two following lists. Of those of the former list, it 
is only uno that makes any change in its termination to denote 
gender ; it must be, uno stato, one state, and una casa, one 



VIII.] 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



65 



house, the first noun being- of the masculine, the latter of the 
feminine gender. To express one by one, two by two, the 
Italians say, uno, aduno, and due a due ; or, ad uno ad uno,'a due 
a due; and, uno must, in this case, always agree in gender, by 
its termination, with the person or thing that it relates to ; as, 
Vid'io cascar li tre ad uno ad uno, 1 saw the three (my sons) 
fall one by one : Dan. In. Narro tutte le mie fatiche ad una 
ad una, I relate aU my troubles one by one; Pet. S. None 
of the others in this first list make any change to express 
gender. The Adjectives of the second list, are subject to all 
the variations of other adjectives ending in o. So we must 
say, il primo giomo, the first day; i primi giorni, the first 
days ; la prima volta, the first time, le prime volte, the first 
times ; and so on, with secondo, terzo, &c. 



Adjectives 

1 uno, una, or un, un' 

2 due, dui, duo, or duoi 

3 tre 

4 quattro 

5 cinque 

6 sei ^ 

7 sette 

8 otto 

9 nove 

10 dieci 

11 undici 

12 dodici 

13 tredici 

14 quattdrdici 

15 quindici 

16 sedici 

17 diciassette 

18 diciotto 

19 dicianndve 

20 venti 

21 vent' uno 

22 venti -due 



of Number, 

23 venti -tre 

24 venti -quattro 

25 venti- cinque 

26 venti-sei 

27 venti-sette 

28 vent' otto* 

29 venti-nove 

30 trenta 

3 1 trent' uno " 

40 quaranta 

41 Quarant' uno 

50 cinquanta 

51 cinquant' uno 

60 sessanta 

61 sessant' uno 
70 settanta 

80 ottanta 
90 novanta 

100 cento 

101 cent' uno 

102 cento-due 
200 dugento 



66 



KTYMOLOOY 



[Chap. 



300 trecento 

400 qujittroccnto 

500 cinquccento 

600 sciccnto 

700 Fcttecento 

800 ottocento 

900 novecento 

1,000 mille 



2,000 due mila 
3,000 tre mila 
4,000 quattro mila 
5,000 cinque mila 
1,000,000 un milione, or 
mig-lione 

2,000,000, due milioni, qr 
miglioni, &c. &c. 



Adjectives of Numerical Order. 



1st primo 


23d ventesimo terzo 


2d sec()ndo 


24th ventesimo quarto 


3d terzo 


25th ventesimo quinto 


4th quarto 


26th ventesimo sesto 


5 th quinto 


27th ventesimo settimo 


6th sesto 


28th ventesimo ottavo 


7th settimo 


29th ventesimo nono 


8th ottavo 


30th trentesimo 


9th nono 


40th quarantesimo _ 


10th decimo 


50th cinquantesimo 


11th undecimo 


60th sessantesimo 


12th duodecimo 


70th settantesimo ' 


13th tredecesimo 


80th ottantesimo 


14th decimoquarto 


90th novantesimo 


15th decimcquinto 


190th centesimo 


16th decimosesto 


200th dugentesimo 


17 th decimosettimo 


300th trecentesimo 


18th decimottavo 


400th quattrocentesimo 


19th decimonono 


500th cinquecentesimo 


20th ventesimo 


600th secentesimo, 


21st ventesimo primo 


1,000th millesimo, &c. &c. 


2 2d ventesimo secondo 




52. Besides these there 


are a few words, expressing 



number, which are generally considered as Adjectives, but 
which are rather Nouns than Adjectives : as un pajo, or un 
para, a couple, or pair, una dozzina, a dozen, una mezza doz:^nu, 
half a dozen, una ventina, a score, una decina, half a score, due 



VIII.] OF ADJECTIVES. G7 

4ecine, two half scores, una quarantina, two scores, una 
' trentina, the number of thirty, un centinajo, the number of a 
i hundred, un migriajo, the number of a thousand ; and a few 

others such like. 

I 

I f 

Of the Degrees of Adjectives. 

53. The Adjective is said to be in the Positive degree, when 
it expresses a quality or characteristic of the person or thing 
that it is applied to, without having reference to any other 
person or thing ; and thus it is distinguished from the other 
two degrees, in both of which the Adjective represents the 
person or thing that it is applied to as being compared with or 
as exceeding, in some way, some other person or thing. The 
word positive, as a grammatical term, means independent or 
subsisting of itself. Thus, when I say, Thomas is wise, the Ad- 
jective wise is in the Positive degree, ^ and has no reference to 
any other person than Thomas : wherf I say, Thomas is wiset 
than William, the Adjective is in the Coynparative degree, be- 
cause, as is obvious, it represents one person as being compared 
with another : when I say, Thomas is the wisest, the Adjective 
is in the Superlative degree. 

54. While our Adjectives never change, as the Adjectives 
in Italian do, to express gender or number, they do, as we all 
know, change their ending to express the degrees. So, while the 
word wise, for example, serves in both genders and numbers, 
to express the positive degree, it changes to wiser and wisest to 
express the other degrees. Now, the Adjectives in Italian, 
while they must change to express gender and number, never 
do, excepting in a very few instances, make any change in 
their endings to express degree. W^e have two ways of speak- 
ing; we say wiser, or more wise, to express amplification in 
comparison, and wisest or most wise, to express the Adjective 
idea in the superlative; and, to express comparative diminution, 
we say less wise, and the like. But the Italians have not, ex- 
cepting in the following Adjectives, any thing like the English 
terminations in er and est in their language. Tlie Italian even 
here, indeed, is quite different from the English ; for the words 
migliore, &c,, that express the comparative and superlative 



ti8 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

degrees, arc altogether different words from those in the Poai- 
tive degree. 



Po 



8ITIVE. 



biidno, good 
cattlvo, bnd 
j)lrrolo, Hniall 
gr until , great 



CompaMtive. 

mifi,lii/r€, better 
pcggUre, worse 
min6re, mnaller 
inai;gi6ri\ greater 



Superlative. 



il mifiliirc, the best 

il peggiirv, the worst 

il mhidre, or tnt-notiw, the smallest 

il maggidre, the greatest 

Now, the general rule in the Italian, excepting the above in- 
stances, is, that, in order to express the comparative degree, 
we must use the word pin, more, which is an Adverb, and 
which, along with some others that will be mentioned in Syntax, 
serves to express comparison ; and that, to express the super- 
lative degree, we must use the definite article and the word 
piu : so we must say, in the comparative, egli ^ piU valoroso, 
he is more brave, or braver ; ella ^ pin bella, she is more hand- 
some, or handsomer ; gli uomini sono piu valorosi, the men are 
more brave, or braver ; le donne sono piu belle, the women are 
more handsome, or handsomer : and, in the superlative, egli e il 
piu valorso, he is the most brave, or bravest; ella b la piu bella, she 
is the most handsome, or handsomest ; questi uomini sono i piu 
valorosi, these men are the most brave, or bravest ; queste donne 
sono le piit belle, these women are the most handsome, or hand- 
somest. Observe, that we may also say, piu cattivo, worse, 
piu piccolo, smaller, and pih grande, greater, in the comparative 
degree, as well as piggiore, minore, maggiore ; and we may say 
il piii cattivo, the worst, and il piil piccolo, the smallest, in the 
superlative degree. But, to say piii buono, more good, or il 
pill buono, the most good, is not correct.- The word meglio, 
means better, and the word peggio means worse ; but these 
words are used as Adverbs, and not as Adjectives, and never 
change their terminations to express either gender or number. 

In order to express the sense of our word very, as we use it 
with Adjectives, the Adjectives in Italian have a separate sort 



VIII.] OF ADJECTIVES. 69 

of termination, and this is derived from the Latin. In forming 
this termination, the Adjective drops its final vowel, and takes 
issimo in its place ; thus, dotto, learned, makes dottissimo, to 
express very learned; piacevole, pleasant, makes piacevolissimo, 
to express very pleasant. In these Adjectives expressing the 
sense of very, the variations of termination to express gender 
and number must be just according to the rules before given. 
The following are examples : 

Singular. Plural. 

Masc. bello, handsome, bellisslmo, bellissimi, l handsome 

Fern, hella, handsome, bellissima, belllssime, ] 

Masc. brutto, ■a.^ly, bruttissimo,bruttissimi, i j 

Fern, brutta, ugly, bruttissima, bruttissime, j 

Masc. grande, great, gra7idissimo, grandissimi, \ ereat 

Fern, grande, great, grandissima,grandissime, j 

^ Masc.felice,\i2iP^y, felicisshno, felicissimi, ^^^^ ^ 
Fern, felice, happy, felicissima, felicissime, 1 

WHien the Adjectives end in co or go, the termination to ex- 
press the very must have an h in place of the final o ; as, bianco, 
white, which must be hianchissimo , very white, and lungo, long, 
which must be lunghissimo, very long. The Adjectives integro, 
-just, salubre, healthful, celehre celebrated, make their termina- 
tion of this kind in eri'imo : integerrimo, very just, saluberrimo 
very healthful, celeberrimo, very celebrated. The words ve7'y 
good are expressed by ottimo or buonissimo, very bad hy pessimo , 
very great by massimo, and very little by minimo or piccoUssimo . 
It is not necessary for the Adjective to take this form in order 
to express the superlative degree ; for the same idea is ex- 
pressed, also, by the Adjective in its original form accompained 
by the Adverb molto, which means much or very ; as il cavallo 
^ molto bello, the horse is very handsome ; la casa ^ molto bianca, 
the house is very white ; instead of, bellissimo, bianchissimo. 



7C BTTMOLOGV [Chap. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Of Augmentatives axd Dtminutites. 

55. There are a great number of words, belonging to the 
classes of Nouns and A.djectives, which come under one or the 
other of the above denominations. Such words are called 
Augmentatives and Diminutives, because, when nouns, they 
generally represent the person or thing as being extraordinarily 
large or small in size, and, when Adjectives, they generally 
represent the quality or characteristic of the person or thing 
as existing in a greater or a smaller degree. Thus, of 
cappeUo, a hat, are formed cappeltone or cappelluccio, a great 
big hat, and cappellitto or cappelUiccio, a little tiny hat ; and of 
scmplice, simple, is formed semplicttto, simple to a mean or 
fooHsh degree : of sdegnoso, disdainful, is formed sdegnosctto, 
somewhat disdainful, or disdainful in a slight degree. — 
Barretti, from whose Dictionar}" I have taken the greater 
part of the following examples, observes that " the general 
" rule to distinguish the various significations of Augmenta- 
" tives is, the terminations in one and ona indicate bigness and 
" stoutness; in otto and occio, indicate a compact and ?iot dis- 
' ' pleasing bigness. Those in accio and azzo, indicate bigness 
" as well as wickedness and contempt. In ame, they increase 
'f- indefinitely the number. Diminutives in ino, etto, ello, and 
" uccio, denote endearment as well as sviallness ; in uzzo, atto, 
" iccio, icchio, dtiola, ipola, lipola, nolo, onzola, anzuulo, indicate 
"despicable pettiness; yet all these rules have exceptions 
" which nothing but good reading can teach." The same author 
also says, that few Augmentatives and Diminutives are 
admitted in solemn st}le, and that the language would suffer 
no great loss if such words were entirely superseded : the latter 
of which observations is not, I think, by any means in good 
taste ; for, though some of these words are merely ridiculous. 



VIII.] 



OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 



71 



and many no other than vulgar sorts of expression; nevertheless, 
a great many of them are of much force, and their use often 
gives a singular grace to the Italian language. Examples : 

Of Nouns Argumentative and Dimunitive. 



Formed 



from u6mo, a 
man 



omuccio, a tall and clumsy man 
omacci6ne, a Tery bulky and clumsy man 
uomijidccio', a very clumsy, worthless fellow 
umaccino, a little active, or impertinent, fellow 
omicciudlo, a puny little fellow 
omicciattolo, a despicable little chap 



from d6nna, a 
. woman 



dontiSne, a stout, or masculine, woman 
donndccia, an impudent wench 
donncttu, a puny, or insignificant, woman 
donnicciuola, a little contemptible woman 
donniclna, a pretty little woman 



casbne, a very large house 
casuccia, a large, ill-contrived house 
casolaruccia, a large house falling into decay 
from casa, a I casotta, a snug house 

house < castlla, a little, poor house 

casuzza, a poor, small, contemptible house 

castna, a very small house 

casellina,-^ 



from lepre, a> 
hare 



from aequo, 
water 



from Itipo, a 
wolf 



from libra, a 
book 



from gente, 
people, or 
folks 



leprdccia, a very old hare 
leprone, a young fat hare 
leprettina,^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ 
leprottina>' 

{acqudccia, bad water, or a large shower 
acqiietta, a small stream 
acquertlla, a very small stream 

{lupoiie, a large wolf 
lupdccio, a large, fierce wolf 
lupacchino, a wolf's whelp 

Ubrdne, a large book 
libretto J a little book 

libriccino, -.a-very little boot 
libricciudlo, J 

gentdccia, despicable people 

gentdglia, a rabble, mob 

gentagUuccia, wretches, fit for any thing that is bad 

gentucciuccia, very despicable people 



72 



BTVMOLOOV 



[Chap. 



from Hii'diro, n 

phyMi<"iau 

from tlotturc, a 
doctor 

from bt'iclo, a 

from principc, 
a prince 



f mrdhonzolo, n ptmy, do»p>cabIc physician 
I iiu ilicastro, ;i ({ii/ick, 

]• (iottoricrhio, a younp, pert, and little doctor 

I baciizzo, a cordial, smacking kisa 

{prhtcipdio, a little, ( 
principinm, a little, 



prhtcipdio, a little, or yonng, prince 

or young, princess 



from pivcro, 
pbvera, a poor • 
person. 



from v6ccliio, 
vccchia, an 
old person 



from, strada, a 
street 

from porta, a 
door 

from JiU.tofo, a 
philosopher 

from fanch'tllo 
a child 

frova fe/nmine, 
a woman 



from gidvane, a 
young man 
or woman 



from mnno, a 
hand 

from naso, a 
nose 



poverino, i 

j;orprt/<o,!a poor, good, honest man 

pnvcrvllo\j 

poverina, '\ 

poverctt(i,^^dt. poor, Rood, honest woman 

poverilla,} 



vecchino, ^ 

vecchutto, va poor, good old man 

vrcrh'nrcllo, ) 

vecchlna, 

I Cecil i 

vccch 



ina, ■\ 
Htfa, K 
ierdla,} 



a poor, good old woman 



j- straddne, a great street 
I portdne, a great door 

\ filosofastro, a smattering philosopher 

cfanciuWno, ] ^ little child 
I Janciullctta, i 

cfemminctta, U Uttle woman 
l Jemminclla, ' 

■ giovinitto, '\ 
giovaiidtto, >a little youth 
giovincello, j 

gwvinaia U little lass 
giovmcclla, ) 

/""""■""'•la pretty little hand 
I manina,} 

\ na.Kone, a great nose 



Of Adjectives Augmentative and Diminutive. 

Formed : 
from ribaldo, frihald6ne, gnrossly iniquitous 
iniquitous ^ribaldillo, petty in iniquity for want of brains 



VIIL] 



AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 



73 



from abhruci- 
jLto, burned 



{abbruciaticciOy singed, or superficially burned 
abbruciacchidto, a little bumedt^bere or tbere 

Xgiovinino, very young 

.piccoUno, . ji^jg 

Ipzcctolino,} 

from sordo, deaf sorddstro, deafish, or a little deaf -, 

jstracchiccio, a little tired 
(gialUtto, 



from giSvine, 
young 

from piccolo, 
little 



from stracco, 
tired 



from giallo, 
yellow 



from bianco, 
white 



(gialletto, '\ 
\gialUno, > 
^sialUiccio.J 



a little yellow, or yellowish 



^gialli'iccio, 

ibianchitto, 
bianciiccio 
\altitto, 



ianchttto, ^ 
\bianchino, la little white, or whitish 
iancUccio,} 



from altOy high {alterillo^^ ^^^^ high,"or highish 

Xamariccio, a little bitter, or bitterish 

(Tossiccion ^ ut^g yg^^ ^^ ^^^^^ 

irossigno,^ 

\*M^cr6(5»c, very proud ; 

{gross6cc^On^^^^^^ stout or fat 
^grossdtto, i 



from amaro, 
bitter 

from rosso, red 

from superbo, 
proud 



from grosso, 
stout, or fat 

from bello, 
beautiftil 



from grande, 
tall, or big> 



rbelUne, very beautiful 
\bellinot beautiful with prettiness 

granddccio, disproportionably big, or tall 

granditto, "J 

granddtto, >a little tall, big, or stout 

grandicillo,} 



E 



74 ETTMOLOoy [Chap. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Etymology of Verbs, 



56. There are eight things to be considered in the Verb ; 
namely : the Conjugation ; the Mode ; the Time ; the Number ; 
the Person ; the Participle ; the Sort of the Verb, or, as some 
call it, the Gender ; and the Government. — ^What we have to 
attend to, in the Etymology of this Part of Speech, is the 
Conjugation. For all other matters relating to the Verb, see 
Paragraph 181. 

57 . The word conjugation means an uniting or a joining to- 
gether. It is derived from the Latin words con^ with or to- 
gether, and jugum, a yoke ; and, in Latin, the verb conjugo, 
from which comes our verb to conjugate, means, to unite, or 
join together, or, more literally, to yoke together. This word, 
then, as a grammatical term, means, to join together, or to 
connect all mider one view, and in their proper order, the 
various changes in form of a verb. The same term might be 
employed, also, in speaking of Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjec- 
tives ; since all these Parts of Speech are subject to a change 
in their endings : but the changes of these are sufficiently dis- 
tinguished by the terms gender, number, and case. It will be 
seen, in a minute, how important a thing it is to attend to the 
conjugation of the verbs in Itahan ; because, in that language, 



IX.] 



OP VERBS. 



75 



as is the case in most foreign languages, the changes are so 
much more numerous than they are in our verbs. Thus, in 
our verb to love, for example, there are but these four varia- 
tions, love, loves, loving, loved ^ while in Italian, amdre, to love, 
changes to dmo, ami, dma, amidmo, amdte, dmano, amdva, amdi, 
amerb, amerS, amdssi, amdndo, amdto, &c. 

58. There are THREE CONJUGATIONS of verbs in the 
Italian language. And the verbs are said to belong to the first, 
to the second, or to the third conjugation, according as they 
end in the Infinitive Mode, which they all do in one or other 
of these ways, in are, in ere, or in ire. 



nn. 1 4. n • *• fAMARE, PaRLARE, ANDARE, 

The 1st Conjugation : as,< . , ' , ,' ^ ' 

'' ° t ' l^to love. to speak. to go. 

I 

Th 2H r ' t'on* as /Credere, Vendere, Leggere, 
^ ° * ' \to believe. to sell. to read. 

^ The 3d Conjugation : as, j^f^T^f ' S^^^^'«^' '^^'^^^ 

*" ° ' (_ to feel. to serve. to come. 

f 

In pronouncing the Infinitives, the accent is, in the first 
conjugation, always on the a which precedes the final re, as in 
the above examples ; and in the third conjugation, the accent 
is always on the i which precedes the final re, as in the above 
examples; but, in the second conjugation, the accent is al- 
ways on the last syllable but one that precedes the final re, as 
in the above examples. To this latter rule, however, the fol- 
lowing twenty-two verbs are exceptions ; and these verbs have 
the accent on the e which precedes the final re. 



avere, to have 
cadere, to fall 
caUre, to care 
cap^re, to hold 
dol&e, to pain 
dov4re, to owe 
giac^re, to lie down 
god&e, to rejoice 



potere, to be able 
riman^re, to remain 
sap^re, to know 
sed^re, to sit 
solere, to be accustomed 
tac&e, to be silent 
tenere, to hold 
tem&e, to fear 



E 2 



7C 



ETYMOLOGV 



[Chap. 



jiarhc, to ap])car 
piacircy to ])lease 
persuacU're, to pcrs«uadc 



vaUre, to be worth 
vMere, to see 
voUre, to be willing 



Those verbs which are compounds of nny of the above twenty- 
two, are pronounced in the same way; as : 



• accad&c, to haj)pen 
antivedtre, to foresee 
appartre, to appear 
compiac&e, to comply with 
csnten^e, to contain 
decadh-e, to decline 
dispartre, to disappear 
dispiacere, to displease 
dissuadtre, to dissuade 
disvoU're, to be unwilling 
equivalire, to beof equal worth 
mantenire, to maintain 
otten&e, to obtiiin 



pretaUre, to prevail 
posscdf're, to possess 
presedere, to preside 
riavtre, to Jiave again 
ricadere, to fall again 
risapere, to know by report 
risedere, to reside 
ritenere, to retain 
rived&e, to see again 
rivok're, to wish again 
soggiacere, to succomb 
sostentre, to sustain 
travzdtre, to see double 



59. A verb is said to be regular or irregular in its conjuga- 
tion. It is regular, when it corresponds, throughout all its 
changes, with other verbs which are considered as models of 
one or other of the conjugations ; it is irregular, when it does 
not entirely correspond with, but differs from, those which 
are the models. Tlius, if we consider amdre, to love, as a model 
of the first conjugation, we find parldre, to speak, perfectly 
regular, because it agrees with amdre in making all its endings 
the same as those of the model : it is io dmo, I love, tu dmi, 
thou lovest, egli unui, he loves ; and io pdrlo, I speak, tupdrli, 
thou speakest, egli pdrla, he speaks ; and so on throughout the 
changes of the model and of the verb that agrees with it. The 
same with credere, to beheve, taking that as a model of the 
second conjugation, and vendere, to sell as a verb agreeing with 
it ; and the same with sentire, t'. feel, taking that as a model 



IX.] OP VEtiiBS. ' 77 

of the third conjugation, and servire, to serve, as a verb agree- 
ing with it. But, if we take anddre, to go, leggere, to read, 
venire, to come, we shall find that these are instances of verbs 
irregular, and that they, in more or less of their changes, differ 
from amdre, credere, and sentire. For example, anddre, in the 
Present Time of its Indicative mode, makes io vddo or vo, I go, 
ttt vdi, thou goest, egli va, he goes ; and not io dndo, tu dndi, 
egli dnda, which would make it agree with amdre : in the same 
way Uggere, in the Past Perfect of its Indicative Mode, makes 
io lessi, I read ; and not io leggei, which would make it agree 
with credere : in the same way venire, in the Past Perfect of 
its Indicative Mode, makes io v^ni, I came ; and not io venii, 
which would make it agree with sentire. 

60. Thus we see, first, what it is to conjugate verbs ; and, 
secondly, in what consists the regularity or irregularity of verbs. 
The only thing that remains to be done, in the third place, is, 
to give an example of a regular verb of each conjugation, with 
all its changes, from beginning to end ; and to give, besides, 
some examples of the irregular verbs of each conjugation, 
showing how these latter differ in their changes from the re- 
gular verbs. 

61. There are many matters, in treating of which thoroughly, 
it is impossible to be at once clear and concise; and the irregularity 
in the forms of Italian verbs is one of such matters. There are 
a great many irregularities and niceties of variation to be atten- 
ded to : there are the ancient manners of spelling ; there are the 
manners of spelling peculiar to the poets ; there are^ also, some 
manners of spelling which are considered as erroneous, or 
merely vulgar. I should wish what I have to say on the Etymo- 
logy of Verbs to be both clear and concise ; and, therefore, I shall 
not undertake to give any explanations as to such variations as 
are called ancient, poetical, or vulgar. For those who wish to 
learn the matter superficially, to study the contents of the pre- 
sent Chapter will be even more than sufficient ; and for those 
whose object it may be to have a perfect knowledge of all that 
belongs to the irregularities and variations of the verbs, the 
best thing I can do is to recommend the use of a book called 



I 



78^ STYMOLocy [Chap. 

" Diz'ionario Cr'Uico de verbi Italiani " (a Critical Dictionary 
of the Italian verbs), in which will be found noticed all the 
changes of every kind that Italian verbs can be subject to, and 
which has, at the end, an alphabetical list of all the irregular 
verbs in the lang-uage. This work, which is by Professor Ma.8- 
TROFiM, is the most complete thing of its kind that I have 
met with. By recommending this book to the learner, I think 
that I shall be rendering him more service than I should be 
by attempting to treat at length of a subject, which, to have 
full justice done it, necessarily requires a great deal more 
room than can be devoted to it in a merely elementary work 
like my own. 

62. I now proceed to give examples of the three Regular 
Conjugations ; and I shall take, as models, the three verbs be- 
fore mentioned, in Paragraphs 58 and 59, amdre, credere, and 
sentire. But I shall, before conjugating these three, give the 
conjugations of the verbs av&e, to have, and hsere, to be* 
These, though both irregular, are, by most grammarians, given 
as the first two to be learned ; because, they are what arc 
called auxiliary verbs ; and they are so called, from the pe- 
culiar office they have as assistants in forming the compound 
times of other verbs. Thus, io ho amdto, I have loved, 20 sono 
amdto, I am loved : here the ho, I have, and the sono, I am, serve 
as auxiliaries or assistants to the verb amdre. These two 
verbs, as relates to their auxiliary capacity, will require strict 
attention when we come to Syntax. (See Paragraph 269.) 
The ten following pages will contain the conjugations, at 
full length, of these five verbs; that is, first, the two auxilia- 
ries autre and essere, and, then, the three models of the regu- 
lar verbs, amdre, credere, and sentire. On the one page (that 
to the left) will be placed all the changes in its simple form 
that the verb is subject to : and on the opposite page will be 
shown all the changes that the verb can undergo as compound- 
ed with the auxiliary, and the variety of termination to which 
the Participles are liable. The page following these ten pages 
of conjugations will contain a Table, which wiU exhibit, in one 
view, the simple forms of all the three regular conjugations 
as compared with one another. 



IX.] OP VERBS. 79 

63. It will be perceived, that the compounds of the verb tssere 
are found by the assistance of tssere itself, and not, in accor* 
dance with our language, by that of avere. So that, while 
wer say, / have been, I had been, &c. the Italians say, literally, 
/ am been, I was been, &c. 



80 



ETTMOLOOT 



rChap. 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY A VERE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Avire || To fa etc. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 





Present Time. 




io ho 
tu hui 
egli ha 


I hare 
tliou hast 
he faaB 


noi ahbidmo 
mi avitr 
iglino hdnno 


we have 
yoii have 
they have 




Past Imperfect Time. 




io aviva 
tu avivi 
egli aviva 


I had 

thou hadst 
he had 


noi avevdmo 
voi avevdte 
- iglino avivano 


we had 

you had 
they had 




Past Perfect Time. 




io ibbi 
tu ovist I 
egli ibbe 


I had 
thou hadst 
he had 


noi avimmo 
Toi aviste 
iglino ibbero 


we had 
you had 
they had 




Future Time. 




io avrb 
tu avrii 
egli avrd 


I shall hare 
thou shalt have 
he shall liave 


noi avrcmo 
tot aircte 
cglino avrdnno 


we shall have 
you sJiall have 
they shall have 




SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 






Present Time. 




io dbbia 

tu dbbi, or ubbia 

egli dbbia 


I may have 

thou mayest have 

he may have 


noi abbidmo 
voi abbidte 
iglino dbbiano 


we may have 
you may have 
they may have 




Past Time. 




io arissi 
tu avessi 
egli avcsse 


I might have 
thou mightest have 
he caight have 


noi aressimo 
voi aviste 
iglino avissero 


we might have 
you might have 
they might have 




CONDITIONAL MODE. 




io avrti 
tu avrcsti 
egli avribbe 


I should have 
thou shouldest have 
he should have 


noi avremmo 
voi avriste 
iglino avribbere 


we should have 
you should have 
they should have 




IMPERATIVE MODE. 








abbidmo 

abbidte 

dbbiano 


let us have 

have 

let them have 


dbbi 
ubbia 


have 

let him have 


PARTICIP 


LES ACTIVE. PARTICIPLE 


PASSIVE. 


avindo "\, 
avinte J" 


aviog 


1 aviito 1 


had 



IX.] 



OP VERBS. 



81 



COMPOUNDS OF THE AUXILIARY A VERB. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Avdre avltto \\ To have had. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



io ho avuto 
tu hai avuto 
egli ha av^to 



io avcva aviito 
tu avtvi aouto 
■fgli avcva avuto 



io ebbi avMo 
tu avtsti avuto 
egli ebbe avuto 



Present Time. 



I have had 
thou hast had 
he has had 



noi abbiamo aviito 
vol avtte avuto 
csUno hknno avUto 



we have had 
you have had 
they have had 



Past Imperfect Time. 



I had had 
tliou badst had 
he had had 



noi avevdmo avuto ;, we had had 
vol avevate aviito you had had 
cglino'avivanoavuto they had had 



Past Perfect Time. 



I had had 
thou hadst had 
he had had 



noi^avcnimo avi'ito 
vol aveste avuto 
cglino cbbero avuto 



we had had 
you had had 
they had had 



Future Time. 



io avrb aviito 
tu avrai aviito 
euli avrct avuto 



I shall have had 
thou shalt have had 
he shall have had 



noi avrcmo aviito 
voi avrtte avUto 
cglinoavrduiio aviito 



we shall have i.ad 
you shall have had 
they shall have had 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Time. 



io iibbia aviito 
tudbbi aviito 
egli abbia aviito 



I may have had 
thou mayest have had 
he may have had 



not abbiamo aviito 
voi abbidte aviito 
eglinodbbiano aviito 



we may have had 
you may have had 
they may have had 



Past Time. 



io avissi avuto 
tu dvessi aviito - 
egli avtsse ai^Uto 



I might have had 
thou raightest have had 
he might have had 



noi avessimo aviito 
voi aveste aviito 
eglino avessero aviito 



we might have had 
you might have had 
they might have had 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



io avrci avuto 
tu avresti aviito 
egli avribbe aviito 



I should have had 
thou shouldest have had 
he sheuld have had 



noi avremmo aviito 
voiavreste aviito 
eglino avrtbbero aviito 



we should have had 
you should have had 
they should have had 



COMPOUND OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 



avendo aviito 

The Participle ending in nte has two 
terminations : 



Sing, avinte , , . 
Plu. avrnti } having 



having had 

The Participle Passive has four ter- 
minations : 

Masc. Fern. 



Sing, avuto, aviita, ■. , , 
Plu. aviiti, aviite, ^ *^ 



£ 5 



82» BTYMOLOOY [Chap. 

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY ESSERE, 





INflNITlVK INIODE. 






ISssere II To be 




. 


INDICATIVE MODE. 






Present Time. 




to s6no 
tu xci 
fgtie 


I am 
thou art 
he is 

1 


tioi sidmo 
vol sicte 
eglino sono 


we are 
you are 
they are 




Past Imperfect Time. 


1 


to tra 
tu tri 
tgli ira 


I was 
thou wast 
he was 


noi eravumo 
voi era rate 
eglino crano 


we were 
you were 
they were 




Past Perfect Time. 




io/iii' 
tu fdsti 
eglifu 


I was 
thou wast 
he was 


noifkmmo 
voi f6ste 
iglinofurono^ 


we were 

you were 
they were 




Future Time. 




io sarb 
tu saral 
tgli sard 


I shall be 
thou sh.ilt be 
he shall be 


noi .tarcmo 
roi saritc 
eglino sarunno 


we shall be 
you shall be 
they shall be 



»o sia 

tu sii, or sia 

(gli sia 



io fSssi 
tu fdssi 
egli fhsse 



io sarii 

tu saretti 
egli saribbe 



sn, or sia 
sia 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Time. 



I may be 
thou mayest be 
he may be 



ttoi siamo 
voi sii'ite 
Eglino slano 



Past Time. 



I might be 
thou mightest be 
he might be 



noi fdssimo 
voi fdste 
eglino fdssero 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



I should be 
thou shouldst be 
he should be 



noi saremmo 
voi sarcstc 



we may be 
you may be 
they may be 



we might be 
you might be 
they might be 



we should be 
yon should be 



eglino saribbero y they should be 
IMPERATIVE MODE. 



be 

let him be 



siamo 

sidte 

siano 



let ns be 

be 

let them be 



PARTICIPLES ACTIVE. 

essindo\ 



essente 



Ibeing 



PARTICIPLE PASSIVE. 
stdto I been 



IXJ 



GP VERBS. 



83 



COMPOUNDS OF THE AUXILIARY ESSERE. 
INFINITIVE MODE. 

Essere stlito \\ To have been 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Time. 



io sSno stkto 
tu sti stato 
egli k stkto 



io Ira stkto 
tu iri stkto 
egli era stkto 



iofiii stkto 
tufhsti stkto 
eglifu stkto 



io sarb stkto 
tu sarki stkto 
egli sard, stkto 



io sia stkto 
tu sii stkto 
egli sia stkto 



iofSssi stkto 
tufSssi stkto 
egli fdsse stato 



io sarei stkto 
tu saresti stkto 
egli sarebbe stato 



I have been 
thou hast been 
he has been 



noi sikmo stkti 
voi siete stkti 
eglino sono stkti 



Past Imperfect Time. 



I had been 
thou hadst been 
he had been 



noi eravkmo stkti 
voi eravkte stkti 
6glino erano stkti 



Past Perfect Time. 



I had been 
thou hadst been 
he had been 



noi fummo stkti 
voifdste stkti 
eglino fiirono stkti 



Future Time. 



I shall have been 
thou shalt have been 
he shall have been 



noi saremo stkti 
voi sarete stkti 
eglino sarknno stkti 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Time. 



I may have been 
thou mayest have been 
he may have been 



noi siamo stkti 
voi sikte stkti 
^eglino siano stati 



Past Time. 



I might have bean 

thou inightest have been 

he might have been 



noifSssimo stkti 
voifoste stkti 
eglino fdssero stkti 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



we have been 
you have been 
they have been 



we had been 
you had been 
they had been 



we had been 
you had been 
they had been 



I we shall have been 
you shall have been 
jthey shall have been 



we may have been 
you may have been 
they may have been 



we might have been 
you might have been 
titiey might have been 



11 should have been 
(thou shouldest have been 

he should have been 



noi sardmmo stati I we should have been 
voi sareste stkti you should have been 

eglino sarebbero stkti (they should have been 



COMPOUND OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 

essendo stkto \\ having been 



The Participle ending in 7ite has two 
terminations : 

Sing. essente-t.-„„ 
Flu. essaitir^'''^ 



The Participle Passive has four 
terminations: 

Masc. Fern. 
Sing, stkto stuta\,„^ 
Plu. stati state i^^^ 



84 



ETYMOLOOT 



[Chap. 



EXAMPLE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Am&re || To lore. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 





Preicnt Time. 




io umo 
tu ami 
egli dma 


Hove 
ihou lovcst 
he loves 


noi amidmo 
voi amittf 
iglino amano 


we love 
you love 
they love 




Past Imperfect Time. 




io amura 
tu anuivi 
egli amdva 


I loved 
thou lovedst 
he loved 


noi amavdmo 
vni nrnavute 
iglino amiLvano 


we loved 
yon loved 
they loved 




Past Perfect Time. 




io amui 
tu aminti 
egli ami) 


I loved 
thou lovedst 
he loved 


noi amammo 
voi amd.stc 
i-glino amitrono 


we loved 
you loved 
they loved 




FiUuT 


e Time. 




io amcrb 
tu amerdi 
egli amerd 


I shall love 
thou shall love 
he shall love 


noi amerimo 
vol amcrite 
iglino amerunno 


we shall love 
you' shall love 
they shall love 




SUBJUNCI 


IVE MODE. 






Preset 


It Time. 




io ami 
tu ami 
egli ami 


I may love 
thoumayest love 
he may love 


noi am ill mo 
voi amiute 
iglino amino 


we may love 
you may love- 
they may love 


' 


Past 


Time. 




io a/iUissi 
tu amassi 
egli amdsse 


I might love 

thou mightest love 

he might love 


noi amiissimo 
voi am/t.ste 
1 iglino amdssero 


we might love 
you might lov«? 
they might love 




CONDITIO] 


VAL MODE. 


V 


io amerci 
tu anuristi 
cgli ameribbe 


I should love 
thou shooldest love 
he should love 


noi amerimmo 
voi amere-ite 
iglino ameribbero 


we should love 
you should love 
they should love 




IMPERAT 


rVE MODE. 








amidmo 

anu'ite 

amino 


let us love 


d>n/i 
ami 


love 

let him love 


love 

let them Jove 


PARTIC 


:iPLES ACTIVE. 


PARTICIPLE P 


ASSIVE. 


ama 
awdi 


:;;}i^z 


1 amdto 1 lov( 


:d 



IX.] 



OF VERBS. 



85 



COMPOUNDS OF THE VERB AMARE. 
INFINITIVE MODE. 

Avire amuto || To have loved 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Time. 



to ho amhto 
tu hdi amuto 
egli ha amdto 



I have loved 
thou hast loved 
he has loved 



noi abbidmo amato 
vol avete amato 
eglifio hdiino amdto 



we have loved 
you have loved 
they have loved 



Past Imperfect Time. 



io aviva amdto 
tu avevi amdto 
egli av&va amdto 



I had loved 
thou hadst loved 
he had loved 



noi avevdmo amdto 
voi avevdte amdto 
eglino avevano amdto 



we had loved 
you had loved 
they had loved 



io 6bbi amdto 
tu avcsti amdto 
egli ebbe amdto 



Past Perfect Time. 



II had loved 
Ithou hadst loved 
I he had loved 



noi avcmmo amdto 
vol aveste amdto 
eglino ebbero amuto 



we had loved 
you had loved 
they had loved 



io avrb amdto 
tu avrdi amdto 
egli avrd amato 



Picture Time. 



I shall have loved 
thou shalt have loved 
he shall have loved 



noi avremo amdto 
voi avrcte amdto 
dglino avrdniio amuto 



[we shall have loved 

you shall have loved 

j they shall have loved 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Time, 



io dbbia amdto 
tu dbbi amdto 
egli dbbia amuto 



I may have loved 

thou mayest have loved 

he may have loved 



noi abbidmo amdto 
voi abbidte amdto 
eglino dbbiano amuto 



we may have loved 
you may have loved 
they may have lo\ed 



io avessi amuto 
tu avessi amuto 
egli avesse amdto 



Past Time. 



I might have loved 

thou mightest have loved 
he might have loved 



noi avtssimo amdto 
voi aveste amdto 
egli7io avessero amdto 



we might have loved 
youmighthave loved 
theymighthaveloved 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



. to avrei amdto 
tu avresti amdto 
egli avrebbe amdto 



I should have loved 
thou shoiildest have loved 
he should have loved 



noi avrimmo amdto 
voi avreste amdto 
eglino avrebbero amdto 



we shouldhave loved 
you should have loved 
they shoiild have loved 



COMPOUND OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 

avcndo amdto \\ having loved 



The Participle ending in 7ite has two 

terminations : 

I 

Sling. amdnteX i^-^„ 
Plu. amdiiti)^''^"'^ 



The Participle Passive has tour 
terminations : 

]\fasc. Fern. 
Sing, amdto, amdta, \, , 
Pill, amuti, amdte, J ^ 



86 



ETYMOLOGY 



[Chap. 



EXAMPLE OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Crldere ii To believe. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



io crido 
tu credi 
€gll cride 



io ere diva 
tu credevi 
egli credeva 



io credei 
tu credtstl 
egli credi, 



Present Time. 



I belicvo 
thou belicvest 
he believes 



noi credUimo 
voi credcte 
cgllno cridono 



Past Imperfect Time. 



I believed 
thou belicvedst 
he believed 



noi credev/imo 
voi'crcdevt'itc 
iglino credcvano 



Past Perfect Time. 



I believed 
thou believedst 
he believed 



noi creddmtno 
voi crediste 
iglino credirono 



we believe 
you believe 
they believe 



we believed 
you believed 
they believed 



we believed 
you believed 
they believed 



to erederh 
tu crederai 
egli crederd, 



Future Time. 



I shall believe 
thou shalt believe 
he shall believe 



noi credertmo 
voi credercte 
cgllno crederdnno 



we shall believe 
you shall believe 
they shall believe 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present Time. 



io creda 
tu creda 
egli creda 



io credcssi 
tu credissi 
egli credcsse 



io'crederei 
tu crederesti 
egli crederebbe 



credi 
creda 



I may believe 

thou mayest believe 

he may believe 



noi crediamo 
voi crediate 
eglino crcdano 



Past Time. 



I might believe 
thou mightest believe 
he might believe 



noi credesximo 
voi credeste 
eglino credcssero 



CONDITIOXAL MODE. 



I should believe 
thou shotildst believe 
he should believe 



noi crederimmo 
voi credereste 
iglino crederibbero 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



believe 

let him believe 



crediumo 

credete 

credano 



we may believe 
you may believe 
they may believe 



we might believe 
you might believe 
they might believe 



we should believe 
you should believe 
they should believf 



let U8 believe 

believe 

let them believe 



PARTICIPLES ACTIVE. 

credcndo }beUeving 
credent e •» " 



PARTICIPLE PASSRT.. 

crediito \ believed 



■X.] 



OP VERBS. 

COMPOUNDS OF THE VERB CREDERE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Avire crediito \\ to have believed 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



87 



jio ho crediito , 
•■■ ': 'it crediito 
Ita creduto 



•cva crediito 
ill evi crediito 
i t;gii aveva crediito 



iocbbi crediito 
tuavisti creduto 
egW cbbe crediito 



iotvrb creduto 
t» avrdi crediito 
efli avrct crediito 



b cibbia creduto 
tu ubhi crediito 
tgli iibbia crediito 



i 



ioaiiss^i crediito 
tt aiissi crediito 
fgii avcsse crediito 



I have believed 
thou hast believed 
he has believed 



Present Time. 



noi abbiamo crediito 
vol avite crediito 
eglino hdnno creduto 



Past Imperfect Time. 



I had believed 
thou hadst believed 
he had believed 



noi avevdmo creduto 
voi avevdte creduto 
eglino avivano crediito 



Past Perfect Time, 



I had believed 
thou hadst believed 
he had believed 



noi avemmo creduto 
voi avtste creduto 
Eglino tbbero crediito 



Future Time. 



I sliall have believed 
thou shalt have believed 
he shall have believed 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Time. 



I may have believed 

thou mayest have believed 

he may have believed 



noi abbiiimo creduto 
voi abbiiite crediito 
eglino abbiano crediito 



Past Time. 



I might have believed 

thou mightest have believed 
he might have believed 



noi avessimo crediito 
voi aveste crediito 
tglino avessero crediito 



noi avremo creduto 
voi avrete crediito 
eglino avrdnno crediito 



we have believed 

you have believed 

1 they have believed 



we had believed 
you had believed 
they had believed 



we had believed 
you had believed 
they had believed 



we shall have believed 
you shall have believed 
they shall have believed 



we may have believed 
you may have believed 
they may have believed 



we might have believed 
you might have believed 
they might have believed 



'^ avrei crediito 
* u avre'sti crediito 
egli avrebbe creduto 



t 

I should have believed 
thou shouldst have believed 
he should have believed 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



noi avrintmo crediito 
voi avrcste crediito 
eglino avrebbero crediito 



we should have believed 
you should have believed 
theyshould have believe d 



. COMPOUND OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 

avendo crediito \\ having believed 

i The Participle ending in nte, has two ter- The Participle Passive has four ter- 
' mmations • minations : 



Sing, credente 



mne. creaenie >, ,• . 
Plu. credcnti }behevmg 



Masc. ^ Fern. 
Sing, crediito,' crediita, Kpij^pj 
Plu. crediiti, credute, J '^eueveo 



88 



KTYMOLOOY 



[Chap. 



EXAMPLE OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 



io slnto 
tu scnti 
egli scnte 



io sentlva 
tu scntlvl 
egli sentlva 



io scfttli 
tu sentisti 
egli sentl 



io scntirb 
tu scntiriti 
egli scntird 



scnti 
scnta 



io scnta 
tu scnta 
egli scnta 



io scntissi 
tu setttissi 
egli sentisse 



io sentirci 
tu sentirc^fi 
egli sentirebbe 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Senlire || To feel. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present Time. 



I U'c\ 

tliou feclest 
he feela 



nol xentidmo 
vol .sentlte 
tglino scntono 



Past Itnperfeet Time. 

I felt noi sentivdmo 

thou feltest ^ voi sentiiute 

he felt eglino sentlvano 

Past Pei/ect Time. 

I felt noi sentfmmo 

thou feltest voi sentiste 

he felt eglino sentlrono 



Future Time. 



I shall feel 
thou Shalt feel 
he shall feel 



noi sentir^tno 
voi smtirtte 
\ iglin4) scntiriinno 



SUBJUNCITVE MODE. 
Present Time. 



1 may feel 
thou mayest feel 
he may feel 



noi sentiamo 
loi sentiate 
eglino scntano 



Past Time. 



I might feel 
thou mightest feel 
he might feel 



7ioi sentlssimo 
voi sentiste 
eglino sentissero 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



I should feel 
thou shouldst feel 
he should feel 



noi scntiramno 
voi sentiresfc 
eglino sentlrcbbero 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



feel 

let him feel 



sentiumo 
sentlte 
sin t a no 



we feel 
you feel 
they feel 



we felt 

you felt 
they felt 



we felt 
you felt 
they felt 



we shall feel 
you shall feel 
they shall feel 



we may feel 
you may feel 
they may feol 



we might feel 
you might feel 
they might feel 



we should feel 
you should feel 
they shooltl feel 



let us feel 

feel 

let them feel 



PARTICIPLES ACTIVE. 

sentendo\ , ,. 
sentcnteV''''^^ 



PARTICIPLE PASSIVE. 



sentito | felt 



IX.] 



OP VERBS. 



89 



COMPOUNDS OP THE VERB SENTIRE, 
INFINITIVE MODE. 

Avere sentito l| to have felt 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



to ho sentito 
tu hai sentito 
egli ha sentito 



io aveva sentito 
tu avtvi sentito 
egli aveva sentito 



io ibbi sentito 
tu avesti sentito 
egli ebbe sentito 



io avrh sentito' 
tu avrdi sentito 
egli avrct sentito 



Present Time. 



I have felt 
thou hast felt 
he has felt 



noi abbiamo sentito 
voi avcte sentito 
tglino hiinno sentito 



Past Imperfect Time. 



I had felt 
thou hadst felt 
he had felt 



noi avevamo sentito 
voi avevate sentito 
iglino avcvano sentito 



Past Perfect Time. 



I had felt 
thou hadst felt 
he had felt 



noi avcmmo sentito 
voi aveste sentito 
tglino ebbero sentito 



Future Time. 



I shall have felt 
thou shalt have felt 
he shall have felt 



noi avrimo sentito 
voi avrtte sentito 
eglino avranno sentito 



we have felt 
you have felt 
they have felt 



we had felt 
you had felt 
they had felt 



we had felt 
you had felt 
they had felt 



we shall have felt 
you shall have felt 
they shall have felt 



io abbia sentito 
tu (tbbi sentito 
egli abbia sentito 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present Time. 



I may have felt 

thou mayest have felt 

he may have felt 



noi abbiutno sentito 
voi abbiate sentito 
eglino ubbiano sentito 



we may have felt 
you may have felt 
they may have felt 



Past Time. 



io avessi sentito 
tu avessi sentito 
egli avesse sentito 



io avrei sentito 
tu avresti sentito 
egli avrcbbe sentito 



1 1 might have felt 

thou mightest have felt 
[he might have felt 



not avessimo sentito 
voi avtste sentito 
eglino avessero sentito 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



I should have felt 

thou ^houldest have felt 
he should have felt 



noi avremmo sentito 
voi avriste sentito 
egli?io avrebbero sentitq 



we might have felt 
you might have felt 
they might have felt 



we should have felt 
you should have felt 
they should have felt 



COMPOUND OF THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES, 

avendo sentito H having felt 



The Participle ending in nte has two 
terminations : 



Sing. sententeXf^-.-^ 
Plu, sententii^^^^'^S 



The Participle Passive has four 
terminations : 

Masc. Fern- 
Sing, sentito, sentlta\^^,. 
Plu. sentiti, sentltei * " 



90 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

A TABLE, OR COMPARATIVE VIEW, 

OF THE THREE CONJUGATIONS OF ITALIAN VERBS. 



examples: 



Amdre, to love ; Cr(jdere, to believe ; Sentire, to feel. 

Indicative Mode. 



Present Time. 



lit. Am — o, 
3d. Cred— 0, 
Sd. Sent— 0, 


i; 


a, I&mo, 
e, Umo, 
e, i&mo, 

Past Imperfect Time. 


Ate, 
«te, 
Ite, 


•BO 

ODO 

ono 


1st. Am — iva, 
2d. Cred— 6vm, 
3d. Sent— in. 


ivi, 

• 


Ava, avimo, 
<vB, evamo, 
ivB, iT&mo, 

Pfli/ Perfect Time. 


arite, 
evite, 

iT&tC, 


&Tano 

<VBDO 
(▼BDO 


Ist. Am — 4i, 
2d. Cred-^il, 
3d. Sent- U, 


<aH, 
titl, 


0, ammo, 
i, <mmo, 

1, imme. 

Future Time. 


*.te, 
<fte, 
i«te, 


irono 
£rono ■ 
irono 


Itt. Am — erft, 
2d, Cred— erft, 
3d. Sent— lr6, 


er&i, 

er&i, 
irii, 


eri, er^mo, 
eri, er^mo, 
ir^, irc^mo, 


er^te, 
er^te, 
irete. 


erinno 
eraono 
iranno 



Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Time. 



1st. Am —I, 
2d. Cred- a, 
3d. Sent— a, 


•f 


i, i&mo, 
s, iimo, 
a, Iimo, 

Past Time. 


iite, 
iite, 
Utc, 


ino 
•no 
ano 


1st. Am — ilisl, 
2d. Cred- cbsI, 
8d. Sent— issi, 


itsl, 


&sse, issimo, 
esse, essimo 
isse, (ssimo, 

Conditional Mode. 


«.te, 
«ate, 
iite, 


issero 
^ssero 
fssero 


l$t. Am— erfl, 
2d. Cred-erel, 
3d. Sent-irei, 


cr^sti, 
er^sti, 
ir^ti, 


erebbe, er^romo, 
er^bbe, er^mmo, 
ircbbe, ir^mmo, 

Imperative Mode. 


erfste, 
er^ste, 
ir^te, 


erebbero 
erftbero 
Irftbero 


1st. Am — .. 
2d. Cred—.. 
3d. Sent— . . 


•» 

i: 


4, iimo, 
•, iamo, 
a, iimo, 


ite, 
«te, 
Ite, 


lw> 

•no 

•DO 



Participles Active. 



1st. Am— &ndo, 
Sd. Cred— end 
ad. Sent— €ndo 






f Am — Snte. 

or, < Cred— ente. 

(Sent— ^nte. 



Participle Passive. 



1st. Am— ito. 
2d. Cred— tSto. 
Sd. Sent— (to. 



IX.J OP VERBS. 91 

64. The following is a List of the Irregular Verbs. The List 
does not contain the whole of them ; but, very much according 
to these examples all the irregular verbs are conjugated. I have 
arranged them in a manner which, it appears to me, need give 
rise to no misunderstanding. In order not to take up a great 
deal of room unnecessarily, I have made figures supply the 
place of vwrds, in the giving of names to the different Modes 
and Times. The meaning of the figures is as follows : 



<• 



1 means the Present Time of the Indicative Mode 

t 

2 Past Imperfect Time of the same 

3 Past Perfect Time op the same 

4 Future Time of the same 

5 Present Time op the Subjunctive Mode 

6 Past Time of the same 

7 Conditional Mode 

8 Imperative Mode 

9 Participle Active 

10 Participle Passive 

I need hardly observe, that it was quite unnecessary for me 
to give any of the compounds in the irregular verbs ; because 
these are always the same, in all verbs, being always formed by 
the Participle Passive and one or other of the auxiliary verbs 
Avere and Essere. — I have, with all the verbs that are conju- 
gated to any extent, inserted the Participle Active (No. 9.), as 
the insertion of this required no additional room. It was not 
absolutely necessary, however, to do this ; for there is very 
seldom any variation in this part of the verb : it always ends 
either in ando or endo ; the former termination being common 
to all verbs of the 1st, and the latter to all verbs both of the 
2d and 3d conjugations. 



\ 



92 



KTYMOLOCr 



[Chap. 



AN ALPHABETICAL LIST 
OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Verbs of the 1st Conjugation, in are. 



And&rcy to go 

^•^'^''°' Ivai, 
or vo, J ' 

2. andava, andavi, 

3. andki, and^sti, 

4. andro, andrai, 

5. vada, v&da, 

6. andassi, andassi, 

7. andrei, andresti, 

8. , va, 

9. andando 
10. andato 



va, 


andiCimo, 


andate, 


vanno 


andava, 


aDdaramo, 


andaviite, 


and^vaao 


andd, 


andammo. 


andaste, 


andarono 


andri. 


and re mo. 


andr^'te. 


andranno 


vada. 


andiaino, 


andiate, 


vadano 


andasse, 


andassimo, 


andaste, 


and^ssero 


andrebbe 


, andrenimo, 


andreste, 


andrcbbero 


vddaj 


andiamo, 


anddte. 


vadano 



Dare, to give. 

1. do, 

2. dava, 

3. di6d 



dai, d^, 

davi, dava, 

.,,. ^ fdiede, 



4. daro, 

5. dia, 

6. d^ssi, 

7. darei, 

8. , 

9. dando 
10. dato 



(_ or di^ 
darai, dara, 

dia, dia, 

dessi, desse, 



I 



diamo, date, danno 
davamo, davate, davano 

f diedero or 



dtmmo, dcste, 



\dettero 



dare mo, 
diamo, 



darete, daranno 



diate. 



f diano or 



\ dieno 
dessimo, deste, d6ssero 
daresti, darebbe, daremmo, dar6ste, dar6bbero 
da, dia, diamo, date, diano 



F&rtf to make, or do. 

1. fo, or \ e • 

faccio, j ^'' 



2. faceva, 

3. feci, 

4. far6, 

5. faccia, 

6. fac^ssi, 

7. far6i, 

8- , 

9. facendo 
10. fatto 



facevi, 

fac^sti, 

farai, 

faccia, 

facessi, 

faresti, 

fa. 



fa, 

faceva, 

fece, 

fari, 

faccia, 

facesse, 

farebbe, 

faccia. 



facciamo f^te, 



facevamo, 

fac^mmo, 

faremo, 

facciamo, 

facessimo, 

far6mmo, 

facciamo, 



facevate, 

faceste, 

f arete, 

facciate, 

faceste, 

fareste, 

facciate, 



fanno 

facevano 

fecero 

faranno 

facciano 

facesse ro 

farebbero 

facciano 



IX.] 






OP VERBS. 




93 


Stare^ 


to stay, 


remain, or 


Stand 








]. 


sto, 


stai, 


sta, 


stiamo, 


state. 


stanno 


2. 


stava, 


stavi, 


stava, 


stavarao, 


stavate. 


stavano 


3. 


st^tti, 


stesti, 


st^tte. 


stemmo. 


steste, 


stettero 


4. 


stard, 


starai, 


stara, 


star^mo, 


starete, 


staranno 


5. 


stia, 


stia, 


stia, 


stiamo, 


stiate 


stfano 


6. 


ste&si, 


stessi, 


stesse, 


stessimo, 


steste, < 


stessero, or 
stessono 


7. 


starei, 


staresti, 


starebbe, 


staremmo, 


stareste. 


fstarebbero 
■j or star^b- 
' bono 


8. 


i 


sta, 


stia, or\ 
st^a j" 


stiamo, 


state. 


Jslieno, or 
\ steano 


9. 


stando 












10. 


stato* 






, 


' 





N. B. The above four are the "only verbs irregular of the 1st Conju- 
gation. — The verb riddre^ to give again, has its inflections just like 
_those of' dare ; but the verbs circondare^ to surround, and rido7iddre, to 
redound, are quite regular, like amdre. 

Verbs of the ^d Conjugation, in ere short, 

Acce7id€re, to set on fire 

3. accesi, accendesti, accese, accenderamo, accendeste, accesero 

9. accend^ndo ; 10. acceso 
Accingersi, or Accignersi, to prepare oneself, (the same as cingere) 
Accogliere, or Accdrre, to make welcome, (the same as cogliere) 
Accorgere, to perceive 

3. accorsi, accorgesti, accurse, accorgemmo, accorgeste, accorsero 

9. accorgendo ; 10. accorto 
Accdrrere, to hasten, or run to, (the same as cdrrere) 
Accrescere, to increase, (the same as crescere) 
Adducere, ox Addt'crre, to bring 

1. adduco, adduci, adduce, adduciamo, adducete, adducono 

2. adduceva, adducevi, adduceva, adducevamo, adducevate,adducevano 

3. addussi, adducesti, addusse, adduceramo, adduc^ste, addussero 

4. addurro, addurrai, addurra, adduremo, addurete, adduranno 

5. adduca, adduca, adduca, adduciamo, adduciate, adducano 

6. adducessi, adducessi, adducesse, adduc^ssimo, adduc^ste, adducessero 

7. addurrei, adurresti, addurrebbe,addurremmo, addurreste, addurrebbero 

8. , adduci, adduca, adduciamo, adducete, adducano 

9. adducendo 
10. addutto 



* Observe, here, that the Participle Passive of stare is the same as that of issere, to 
be. — The verb contrastare, to resist, and other verbs derived from stare, are regular, 
ike amare. 



94 KTVMOLooY [Chap. 

Affigcre^ to fix, (tlic same as prefiggere) 
Affiigcre, to afflict ' 

3. aOli'ssi, affligt'-sti, afflissc, affligemmo, aiHig^ste, afflissero 

9. affligendo; 10. afflitto 
Aggiiingerey or Aggii'ignere, to add to, (the same a& giungere) 
Aliiidere, to allude, (the same as delndere) 
Amm^ttcre, to admit, (the saokc as metl^re) 
Anciderey to kill,' (the same as recidcre) 
Antepdrre to prefer, (the same as porre) 
Appindercy to hang 

3. app^si, appendesti, app6se, appendemmo, appcnd^ste, appesero 

9. appendendo ; 10. appeso 
Appdre, to put on, (the same as purre) 
Appraidere, to learn, (the same as pr^ndere) 

Ardere, to bum 

3. arsi, ardesti, arse, ardemmo, ard^ste, arsero ' 

9. ardendo ; 10. ^rso 
Arrendersi, to give oneself up, (the same as r^ndere) 
Arridere, to smile, (the same as ridere) 
Asc^ndere, to ascend, (the same as sv^ndere) 
Ascondere, to hide 

3. ascusi, ascondesti, ascuse, ascondemmo, ascondeste, asc6&ero 

0. ascondendo ; 10. asc6so, or ascosto 
Ascrivere, to ascribe, (the same as scrivere) 
Aspdrgere, to besprinkle, (the same as spirgere) 
Assistere, to assist 

10. assistito 
Assolvere, to absolve 

3. assulsi, assolv^sti, assulse, assolv^mmo, assolveste, as56l5ero 

9. assolvendo ; 10. assoluto, or ass61to 
Assorbere, to absorb 

10. ass6rto 
Assumerc, to undertake 

3. assiinsi, asumesti, assunse, assumemmo, assum^ste, ass6nsero 

9. assumendo. 10. assuuto 
A^tihgere, to rub clean, (the same as te'rgere) 
Astr&rre, or Astraerey to abstract, (the same as trarre) 
Astringere, or Astrignere, to constrain, (the same as stritigere) 
Ati^ndere, to attend, (the same as teyidere) 
Attingercy or Attigtiere, to come at, (the same as tt'ngere) 
Attdrcere, to twist, (the same as torcere) 
Attrarre, or Attrdere, to attract (the same as trarre) 
Awincere, to tie, (the same as viticere) 
Avvdlgers, to wrap, or wind up, (the same as vdlgere) ' 



IX.] OP VERBS. 95 

BdtterCf to beat 

3. batti, battestij batte, batt6mmo, batteste, batjberono 
9. battendo ; 10. battuto 

ChidderCi to ask < 

1. chiedo, chiedi, chiede, chiediamo, chiedete, chi^dono, 

chieggo, ") 
or chieggio J 

3. chi^si, chiedesti, chi6se, cbied^mmo, Chied6ste, chi^sero 

9. chiedendo ; 10. chiesto 
Chiudere, to shut 

3. chi6si, chiudesti, chiCise, chiudemmo, chiudeste, chi6sero 

9. chiudendo ; 10. chiuso 
Cingere, or CignerCy to gird 

3. cfnsi, cingesti, cinse, cing^mmo, cingeste, cinsero 

9. cingendo ; 10. cinto 
Circoncidere, to circumcise, (the same as recidere) 
Circonscrivere, to circumscribe, (the same as scrivere) 
Cdcere, to cook, (the same as cuvcere) 
Cogliere, or corre, to gather, (the same as scidgliere) 
Commettere, to commit, (the same as metiere) 
Commuovere, to more, (the same as muovere) 
Compiangere, to lament, or condole, (the same as pidngere) 
Comporre, to compose, (the same as porre) 
Comprendere, to comprehend, (the same as prdndere) 
Comprimei'e, to press, (the same as opprimere) 
Compromdttere, to compromise, (the same as mettere) 
Covipungere, or Compugnere,to afflict, (the same as pungere) 
Conchiudere^ to conclude, (the same as chiudere) 
Coneludere, to conclude, (the same as deludere) 
Co/icorrere, to run together, (the same as correre) 
Concuocere, to concoct, (the same as cuocere) 

Condesc^ndere, or Condiscendere, to condescend, (the same as scdndere) 
Condurre, or Conducere, to conduct, (the same as addurre) 
Configgere, to fasten together, (the same as fzggere) 
Confondere, to confound, (the same diSfdndere) 
Congiungere, or Congiugnere^ (the same as giugnere) 
Co7in^ttere, to connect 

3. conuessi, connett^sti, connesse, connettemmo, connetteste 
connessero 

9. connettendo ; 10. connesso 
Conoscere, to know 

3. con6bbi, conoscesti, conobbe, conoscemmo, conosc6ste, co- 
n6bbero 

9. conoscendo ; 10. conosciuto 
Conquidere, to conquer, (the same as recidere) 



96 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

Comistere, to consist, (the same as axsislere) 

Vonspirg^re^ or Cospirgerey to strew, (the same as tpirgere) 

Oonsumerc, to consume, (the same as assumere) 

Contendere, to contend, Cthe same as tendh-e) 

Contdrcere, to twist, (the same as turcere) 

Contrap/irre, or Cuntrapdnerc, to oppose, (the same as p6rre) 

Contrnrre, or Cotitrdrrr, to contract, (the same as trdrre) 

Couvincerc, to convince, (the same as vincere) 

Cdrre, to gatljer, (the same as cdgliere) 

Corr^gcre, to correct, (the same as r^ggere) ^ 

Cdrrere, to run 

3. cursi, corr^sti, c6rse, corremmo, corrcstc, c<jrsero 

9. correndo ; 10. curso 
Corrispdndere, to correspond, (the same as rispundere) 
Corrodere, to corrode, (the same as rudere') 
Corrdmpere, to corrupt, (the same as rumpere') 
Cospdrgerc, to strew, (the same as spdrgere) 
Cospirgcre, to strew, (the same as sp^rgerc^ 
Costringcre, or Costrign^re, to constrain, (the same as stringeri) 
Criscere, to grow 

3. crebbi, crcscesti, crcbbe, crescemmo, cresceste, crebbcro 

9. crescendo ; 10. cresciuto 
Crocifiggere^ to crucify 

3. crocifissi, crocifiggesti, crocifisse, crocifigg<?mmo, crocifiggeste, 
crocifissero 

9. crocifiggendo ; 10. crociflsso 
Cudcere, to cook 

3. c6ssi, cuocesti, cosse, Cocemmo, cuoceste, c6aBero 

9. cocendo ; 10. cotto 

Dectdere, to decide, (the same as recidere) 
Decr^scere, to decrease, (the same as crc'scere^ 
Dedurre, to deduce, (the same as adducere) 
Deludere, to delude 

3. delusi, deludesti, deluse, deludemmo, deludeste, delusero 

9. delud^ndo ; 10. deluso 
Depdrre, to depose, (the same as pdrre") 
Deprimercy to depress, (the same as opprimere) 
Deridere, to deride, (the same as ridere) 
Descrivere, to describe, (the same as scrivere) 
Desistere, to desist, (the same as assistere^ 
Delrdrre, to detract, (the same as trdrre') 
Di/^ndere, to defend 

3. dif^si, difeadt'sti, difese, difendemmo, difendeste, difesero 

9. difendendo ; 10. difeso 
Di^dndere, to pour out, (the same Ji&fdndere') 



IX.] OP VERBS. 97 

Dini^tiere, to discontinue, (the same as mdttere) 

Dipttiffere, or Dipignei'e^ (the same as pingere) 

Dirigerey to direct, (the same as erigere) 

Disappre'nderey to unlearn, (the same &s prendere) 

Discdndere, to descend, (the same as scdndere) 

Disci6rrey or Disciogliere, to untie, (the same as sciSrre) 

Discdrrere, to discourse, (the same as correre) 

Discutere, to discuss . [cussero 

3. discdssi, discut^sti, discusse, discutemmo, discuteste, dis- 

9. discutendo ; lO.disctisso 
Disgimigere, or Disgiugnere, to disjoin, (the same as gimigere) 
ZHsm^ttere, to dismiss, (the same as mittere) 
Dis7n6vere, or Dismudvere^ (the same as mdvere) 
Disperdere, to disperse, or throw away [perderono 

3. disperdei, disperdesti, disperde, disperdemmo, disperdeste, dis- 

9. disperdendo ; 10. disperduto 
Dispdrgere, to disperse [persero 

3. dispersi, disperg^sti, disperse, disperg^mmo, dispergeste, dis- 

9. disperdendo ; 10. disperso 
Disporre, to dispose, (the same as p6rre) 
Disiendere, to distend, (the same as stdndere) 
Z)istz?9guere, to distinguish, (the same as estinguere) 
DistSgliere^ or Distorre, to dissuade, (the same as tdgliere) 
Distr&rre, or Distraere, to distract, (the same as tr&Tre) 
Distruggere, to destroy, (the same as siruggere) 

Disvdilere, Divdllere^ or disvdrre, to draw, or pull off, (the same as svelkre) 
Dividere, to divide, (the same as recidere) 

ElSggere, to elect, (the same as Uggere) 
Elidere, to contract, (the same as rdcidere) 
Eludere, to elude, (the same as deludere) 
Ergere, to erect 

3. ersi, ergesti, ^rse, ergemmo, ergeste, ersero 

9. ergendo, ; 10. erto 
Erigere, to raise up 

3. eressi, erigesti, er^sse, erig^mmo, erigeste, er^ssero 

9- erig^ndo; 10. eretto 
Escludere, to exclude, (the same as deludere'), 
Esigere, to exact 

10. esatto 

Efisterey to exist, (the same as asststere^ 
Espdllere, to expel 

3. espulsi, espellesti, espdlse, espellemmo, espell6ste, esptilsero 

9. espellendo ; 10. espulso 
Espdrre, to expose, (the same as pdrre) 



^8 BTYMOLocr [Chap. 

Eiprimcre, to express, (llic same as opprimire) 
Esse'rf, to be, (see this vcrb'conjupated at f«ll, In page 82. 
EiUnderey to extend, (the same as tdndere) 
Estt'nguere, to extinguish 

3. est'insi, esling(iosti, cst'inse, estincruemmo, estinjrueste, estmsero 

9. estingu^ndo ; 10. estiuto 
Estrrirre, to extract, (the same as trArre) 

Findcre, to cleave 

.3. fendei, fendesti, fende, fendemmo, fcndeste, fenderono 

9. fend^ndo ; 10, fend (ilo, or fesso 
Figgercy to fix, (the same as ajfliggercj 
Fhigerc, to feign, (the same as pingcre) 
Fdndcre, to melt or pour 

3. f(isi, fondesti, fCise, fonderamo, fond6ste, fusero 

9. fond<:-ndo ; 10. fuse 
Frammettere, to put between, (the same as m^ttere) 
Frdngere, to break 

3. fransi, frangOsti, franse, frangemrao, frangeste, fransero 

frangendo ; 10. fr.4nto 
Frappdrre, to put between, (the same as porre) 
Friggere, to fry, (the same a.s ajfliggere) 

Genuji^ticre^ to go on one's knees [genuflessero 

3. genuflessi, genufletttsti, genuflesse,gcnufiettemmo, genuflctteste, 

9. geuuiiettendo ; 10. gcnufiesso 
Giiengere, or Giugnere, to an'ive 

3. giuDsi, giungesti, giiinse, giungemmo, giungeste, gi6nscro 

9. giungendo ; 10. giCinto 

Illiidere, to deceive, (the same as dcludere) 

Imm^rgere, to dip, (the same as mergere) 

Impellere, to impel, (the same as cspellere) 

Impdrre, to impose, or ordain, (the same as porre) 

Jmprimere, to print, (the same as opprimere) 

Inchiudere, to shut up, (the same as ckiudere) 

Incideie^ to cut, or engrave, (the same as recidere) 

Includcrey to include, (the same as deliidere) 

Incoi-rercy to incur, (the same as cdrrere) 

Jncrescere, to grow tired, (the same as a-c'scere) 

Indurrc, or I?idi'(cere, to induce, (the same as addurre) 

Jiifingere^Oi Infignere, to feign, (the same fts fiytgere) 

Infdndere, to infuse, (the same asfondere) 

/»frdn(/ere, to break, (the same ^% frnngere) 

Jnframmitlere, or Inirammettere. to put between, (the same as mdUere) 

Jngiungtre, or Ingiifgnere, to enjoiti, (the same as giungere) 



IX.] OF VERBS. 99 

Liscrtvere, to inscribe, (the same asscrt'vere) 
hisistere, to insist, (the same as assistere) 
Insorgere, to rise up, (the same as surgerc) 
Int^ndere, to hear, (the same as t^ndere) 
Interrndttere, to discontinue, (the same as mettere) 
Interporre, or hiirapdrre, to interpose, (the same as p6rre) 
Inte.rr6mpere, to interrupt, (the same as rompere) 
Intingere^ or Intignere, to dip, (the same as tingere) 
Jntraprendere, to undertake, (the same as preiidere) 
Litridere, to dilute, (the same as redder e) 
Introdurre, to introduce, (the same as addurre) 
Intrometterey to interpose, (the same as mittere^ 
Intruder e^ to intrude ' 

3. intrusi, intrud^sti, intruse, intrudemmo, intrudeste, intrusero • 

9. intrudendo ; 10. intruso 
InvaderCy to invade, (the same as persuadere') 

Ledere, to oflFend 

3. lesi, ledesti, lese, ledemmo, led^ste, lesero 

9. ledendo ; 10. leso ' 

Leggere, to read 

3. lessi, leggesti, lesse, leggemmo, leggeste, lessero 

9. leggendo ; 10. letto 

Manomettere, to manumit, (the same as mettere) 
Mergere, to plunge 

3. mersi, mergesti, merse, mergemmo, mergeste^ mersero 
'9. mergendo ; 10. merso 
M^scere, to mingle 

10. mesciuto 
Mettere, to put 

3. misi, mettesti, mise, mettemmo, metteste, misero 

9. raettehdo ; 10. messo 
Mdrdere, to bite 

3. mursi, mordesti, morse, mordemmo, mordeste, m6rsero 

9. mordendo ; 10. morso 
Movere, to move 

3. m6ssi, movesti, m6sse, movemmo, moveste, m6ssero 

9. movendo ; 10. mosso 
Mungere, or 3Iitgnere, to milk 

3. munsi, mungesti, mdnse, mungemmo, mungfeste, munsero 

9. mungendo ; 10. muHto 
Nascere, to be born 

3. nacqui, nac^sti, ndcque, nascemmo, naceste, nacquevo 

9. nascendo ; 10. nato 

f2 



100 



ETTMOLOOT 



[Chap. 



yascnitdere, to hide, (the Bame as a$cCndere) 
NegUgeret to neglect 

3. neglessi, neglig^sti, negl6sse, negligfemmo, neglig6ste,negl68S€ro 

9. negligeodo ; 10, neglctto 
Nuocerey or Nucerc^ to hurt 

3. n<'>cqui, nocZ-sti, n6cque, nocemmo, noc^ste, nocquero 

y. noctndo ; 10. nociuto 

OJfcndere, to offeud 

"i. offtsi, offendesti, offt-se, offendemmOj''offendestc, offi^sero 
9. offendendo ; 10. ofleso 
'Ommc'tterey to omit, (the same as m^ttere) 
Opporre^ to oppose, (the same asporre) 
Opprimere, to oppress 

3. oppress!, opprinjesti, oppresse, opprim^mmo, opprim&ste, 

oppressero 
9. opprimendo ; 10. oppress© 



P(isccrp, to feed 

3. pascei, pascesti, pasce, pasccmmo, pasc^te, pasc&rono 

9. pasceudo ; 10. pasci6to 
Percurrercy to run over, (the same as cdrrere) 
Percnitterey to strike [c6ssero 

3. percossi, percotesti, perc6sse, percotemmo, percoteste, per- 

9. percotendo ; 10. pcrc6sso 
Ptrdere, to lose 

3. perd^i, perdesti, perd^, perdemmo, perdeste, perd^roDo 

9. perdendo ; 10. perd6to, or perso 
Pcrmdttere, to permit, (the ^ /le as m^ttere) 
Ptrsiaterey to persist, (the same as assfstere) 
Fidngere, to weep, (the same bs frdngere) 
Pingfrsy or Pigiifre, to paint 

3. p'lnsi, pingesti, p'lnse, pingemmo, pingfeste, pinsero 

9. pingendo ; 10. pmto 
P6rgert, to present 

3. porsi, porg^sti, p6rse, porg^mmo, porg^ste, p6rsero 
9. porg^ndo ; 10. porlo 
Pdrre, or Ponere, to put 
1. p6ngo, p')ni, pone. 



2. poneva, 

3. p<isi, 

4. porro, 

5. p<Snga, 



ponen, ponera, 
poneeti, p<3se, 
porrai, porri, 
p6Dga, p6nga, 



ponghiimo pon&te, p<5ngono 

ponevamo, ponevkte, ponevano 

pon^mmo, poneste, p6sero 

porremo, porrete, porranno 

poniamo, poniate, p6agano 

or or 

ponghiamo, ponghikte. 



IX.] OF VERBS. 101 

6. ponessi, ponessi, pon^sse, ponessimo, poneste, 'ponessero 

7. porr^i, .. porresti, porrebbe, porr^mmo, porreste, porr6bbero 

8. — — — , p<Sni, p<inga, ponikmo, ponete, p6ngano 

or 
pongbioimo, 

9. ponendo ; 10. p<Ssto 

Posporrcy to think less of, (the same as p6rre) 

Precidcrey to cut oflF, (the same as recidere) 

Precorrere, to fore-run, (the same as cdrrere) 

Prefiggercy to fix, or limit [fi'ssero 

3. prefis.si, prefiggesti, prefisse, prefiggemmo, prefiggeste, pre- 

% prefiggendo ; 10. prefisso 
Premetterey to prefer, (the same as mdttere) 
Pr&ndere, to take 

3. presi, prendesti, prfese, prend^mmo, prend^ste, presero 

9. prendendo ; 10. preso 
Preporre, to prefer, (the same as p6rre) 
Presce'glierej to choose, (the same as sc^gliere) 
Prescrivere, to prescribe, (the same as scrivere) 
Presumercy to presume, (the same as assumere) 
Preiendere, to pretend, (the same as tdndere) 
Pretermditere, to omit, (the same as mettere) 
Produrrcy or Producerey to produce, (the same as addurre) 
Prof under Cy to dissipate, (the same asfdndere) 
Promettere, to promise, (the same as mettere) 
Promovere, or Promuovere, to promote, (the same as movere^ 
ProporrSy or Propdnere, to propose, (the same as porre) 
Prordmperey to break forth, (the same as rompere^ 
Proscioglierey or Proscidrrcy to untie, (the same as scidgliere') 
ProscriverCy to proscribe, (the same as scrivei-e) 
Prostindere, to prostrate, (the same as tendere) 
Proteggere, to protect [tessero 

3. protessi, proteggesti, protesse, protegg^mmo, proteggeste, pro- 

9. protegg^ndo ; 10. protetto 
Protrarrcy or Protrdere, to prolong, (the same as trarre) 
Putigere, or Pugnere, to prick 

3. punsi, pungesti, punse, pungSmmo, pungeste, punsero 
I 9. pung^ndo j 10. p6nto 

Rabbattercy to beat down, (the same as battere), 

Raccendere, to light again, (the same as accdndeie") 

Racckiudere, to shut up, (the same as chii'tdere) 

Raccdglierey or Raecorre, to gather together, (the same as cSgliere) 



102 ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. 

Rnderf, to share 

3. r.isi, radt'-sti, rase, rademmo, rad^ste, rascro 

y. radi'-ndo ; lU. raso 
li'iggiiingvrc, or liaggtugnere, to rejoin, (the same as gittngcre) 
Fiawolgere, to fold, or wind up, (the same as vo/gere) 
/iiassihnere, or Riassumere, to reassume, (the same as aisumere) 
HcciderCf to cut 

3. rccisi, rccidesti, recisc, recidctnmo, recideste, rcctscro 

9. recidtndo; 10. reef so 
Redimcre^ to redeem 

3. red6nsr, ri'dimesti, rCdensc, rcdimi'mrao, redimeste, redenscro 

9. redimendo ; 10. redeato 
Rtggere, to rule 

3.ressi, regg^sti, resse, reggemmo, reggestc, r(?ssero 

9. reggendo ; 10. retto 
* Rtfnderc, to render 

3. resi, rendcsti, r6se, rendemmo, rendeste, r^sero 

9. reddendo ; reso 
Rfprimere, to repress, (the same as opprimere) 
Rescrivercy or Riscrivere^ to write again, (the same as scriverc) 
Resistere, to resist, (the same as asspiere) 

Respmgere, or Resptgnere^ to drive back, (the same as spingere) 
Restringcre, or Resfr/gjiere, to restrain, (the same as stringerc) 
Riacc^ndere, to light again, (the same as nccdndere) 
Riardere, to burn again, (the same as ardere) 
Richi^dere, to ask, or require, (the same as chi^dere) 
Richiudere, to shut up, (the same as chiudere) 
Ridngere, to surround, (the same as c?tigerc) 
Ric'gliere, or Ricorre, to gather tegether. (the same as cogliere) 
Ricomporre^ to compose again, (the same as porre) 
Ricondurre^ to conduct back, (the same as condurre) 
Ricongiiaigerey to rejoin, (the same as giungere) 

Riconoscere, to recognize (the same as conoscere) I 

Ricorrere, to have recourse to, (the same as correre) 
Ricorreggere, to correct again, (the same as rc'ggere) 
Ricrcscercy to increase, (the same as cr^scere) 
Ricuocere, to cook again, (the same as cu6cerc) 
Ridere, to laugh 

3. risi, ridesti, rise, ridemmo, rid^ste, rfsero 

9. ridendo ; 10. riso 
Ridurrcy to reduce, (the same as addurre) 
Rifo/iderey to melt, or cast anew, (the same as/ondere) 
Rifrnngere, or Rifragnere, to reflect, or refract, (the same as frangere) - 
Ri/n'ggere, to frj- anew, (the same as friggere) 

• This verb i8 sometimes conjugated as a regular verb, like credere ; and 
then it would make, in the past perfect, rendti, rendlsti, SfC. 



IX.} OF VERBS. 103 

Rigiungere, or Rigiugnere, to rejoin, (the same as giutigere) 
Rile'ggere, to read anew, (the same as le'ggere) 
RelucerCy to shine 

3. rilussi, rilucesti, ril(isse, riluc^mmo, viluceste, rilussero" 

9. rilucendo ; \Q. (no participle passive) 
Rime'tterey to replace, (the same as m^ttere) 
jftiniordere, to bite again, (the same as mvrdere') 
Rimovercy or Rimiwvere, to remove, (the same as m6vere^ 
Rinuscere, to be born anew, (the same as ndscere^ 
Rinchiudere, to shut in, (the same as cMudere) 
Rinarescerey to displease, (the same as crdscere) 
Rinvolgere^ to envelope, (the same as volgere) 
Ripuscere, to feed again, (the same as pdscei'e) 
Ripercic6teTe, to strike anew, (the same as percuotere) 
Riporrcy to replace, (the same as porre) 
RiprcnderCy to retake, (the same as pr^ndere') 
RiprodurrCy to reproduce, (the same as prodiirre) 
Riprometterey to promise anew, (the same as mettere') 
Riscrtvere, to write anew, (the same as scrwere) ' 
Riscuote)-e, to demand, (the same as scuotei'e) 
Risolvere, to resolve, (the same as ass6lvere) 
Risdrgere, to rise again, (the same as sdrgere) 

Risospingere, or Risospignercy to drive back again, (the same as spirigere) 
Risptngere, or Risp?g7iere, to drive back again, (the same as spingere^ 
Risponderey to reply 

3. risp6si, rispondesti, risp6se, rispondemmo, rispond^sti, rispusero 

9. rispondendo ; 10. risposto 
Ristriiigerey or Ristrignere, to restrain, (the same as stringere) 
Rittngere, or Ritignerey to die again, (the same as tingere) 
Ritdgliere, or Ritdrre, to retake, (the same as tdgliere') 
Ritdrcerey to retort, (the same as tdrcere) 
Ritrdrre, to withdraw, (the same as trdrre) 
Rivtvere, to revive, (the same as vivere') 
Riodlgercy to turn back, (the same as volgere') 
Rdderey to gnaw . 

3. rusi, rodesti, r6se, rodemrao, rodeste, rosero 

9. rodendo j 10. ruso 
Rdmpere, to break 

3. ruppi, rompesti, ruppe, rompemmo, rorapeste, ruppero 

9. rompendo ; 10. r6tto 

Sce'gliere, or sctfrre, to choose 

1. scelgo, scegli, sceglie, scegliamo, scegliete, ecelgono ' ■ 

2. sceglieva, &c. 

3. scelsi, scegliesti, scelse, scegliemmo, sceglieste, scelsero 

4. sceglierd, &c. 



104 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

5. sci'Iga, scplga, scelga, sccgliamo, scegli.ite, 8c6Igano 

6. 8cegli6ssi, &c. 

7. Bceglierti, &c. 

8. 8c6gli, Bc^'lga, scegliAmo, sccglu-te, sc^Igano 

y. BCcglirndo ; 10. scclto 
Sci'ntlere, to descend 

3. scesi, 8cend('3te, scesc, scendemmo, scendtstc, scesero 
9. sccndeodo; 10. sc^so 

Schii'uUrc, to open, (the same as chiuderc) 
Scii'tgliere, or Sci^rre, to untie 

1. sciolgo, sciogli, 8ci6glie, sciogliamo, sciogli^te, sci61gono 

2. scioglieva, Ac. 

A. sciolsi, sciogliestCj sciolse, scioglifemmo, sciogli^stc, 8ci6Isero 

4. sciogliero, &c. 

5 sciulga, sciolga, sciulga, sciogliamo, sciogliate, 8ci61gano 

6. sciogliessi, &c. 

7. scioglier^i, &c. 

8. • sci('>gli, sci61ga, sciogli&mo, sciogliete, sci61gano 

9. sciogliendo ; 10. sci61to 
Sconie'ltere, to bet, (the same as m^ttere) 
Scomporre, to derange, (the same as p6rre) 
ScoiifiggerCy to conquer, (the same as afliggcre) 
Scontdrcerey to wrest, (the same as torcere) 
Sconvolgere, to overturn, (the same as v/lgere) 
Srorgere, to perceive, (the same as accurgcre) 
Scrivere, to write 

3. scrissi, scrivesti, scrisse, scriv^mmo, scrivfeste, scrissero 
9. scrivendo ; 10. scritto 

Scuotere, to shake ofF, (the same as percuotere) 

Sedurre, to seduce, (the same as addurre) 

S/iuingere, or Smugnere, to drain, (the same as mungerc^ 

Saiuovercy to remove, (the same as movere^ 

Socchiudere, to half shut, (the same as chiudfre) 

Soccorrere, to succour, (the same as currere) 

Soggitingere, or Soggi/ignerey to add to, (the same as giungere) 

Suintit^rgerey to sink, (the same as mergere) 

S'tmmettere, to submit, (the same as mcttere) * 

SoppurrCy to subdue, (the same as /pJrre) 

!>Qpraggii'mgerey or Sopraggiugnerey to supervene, (the same as giungere) 

Stprapporre, to put over, (the same as porre) 

Soprascrtvercy to superscribe, (the same as scrt'vere) 

SopraviverCy to survive, (the same as vivere) 

Sopprrnure, to suppress, (the fame as opprtmere) 

Soprintinderey to superintend, (the same as intcfndere) 

Sdrgere, to rise 

3. sorsi, sorgesti, surse, sorg^mmo, sorgeste, Sorsero 

9. Borgendo ; 10. ?6rto 



IX.] OP VERBS. 105 

Sorpreniere, to surprise, (thesame as pre'nderi) 
Sorr^ggere, to sustain, (the same as rdggere) 
Sorridere^ to smile, (the same as ridere) \ 

Soscnverey to subscribe, (the same as scriveie) 

Sosp^dere^ to suspend [pesero 

3. sospesi, sospendesti, sospese, sospendemmo, sospendeste, sos- 
9. sospendfendo ; 10. sospeso 
Sospingere, or Sospignere, to push, (the same as spingere) 
Sotiintendere, to sub-understand, (the same as t^ndere) 
Sottom^ttere, or Somm^ttere, to submit, (the same as metlere) 
Sottapdrre, to put under, (the same as p6rre) 
Sotioscnvere, to subscribe, (the same as scnvere) 
Sottrdrre, to subtract, (the same as trdrre) 
Sovraggiungere^ to come upon, (the same as gvingere) 
Spdrffere, to spread 

3. sparsi, spargtsti, sparse, sparg^mmo, sparg^ste, sparsero 
9. spargendo; 10. sparto 
Sp^gnere, or Spdngercy to extinguish 

3. spensi, spegnfesti, spense, spegnfemmo, spegneste, spensero 
9. spegnendo j 10. spento 
Spendere^ to spend 

3. spesi, spendeati, spese, spendemmo, spendeste, spescro 
9. spendendo ; 10. speso 
Sp^gere, to disperse 

3. spersi, spergesti, sperse, sperg^mmo, spergeste, spersero 
9. spergendo ; 10. sperso 
Spingeref or spignere, to push 

3. spinsi, spingesti, spinse, sping^mmo, spingeste, spinsero 
9. spingendo j 10. spinto 
Sporgere, to project, (the same as porgere) , 

Stindere^ to stretch, (the same as tdndere) 
Stdrcere, to wrest, (the same as tdrcere) 
Straccocere, to overcook, (the same as cocere) 
Stravolgere, to twist round, (the same as volgere) 

Stringere, or Strigneref to bind \ 

3^ strinsi, stringesti, strinse, stringemmo, striugeste, strinsero 
9. stringendo ; 10. stretto 
Struggere, to dissolve 

3. strtissi, struggesti, strusse, struggemmo, struggeste, strussero 
9. struggendo ; 10. strutto 
Subdimdere, to subdivide, (the same as reczdere) 
Sveller€j or Sv^rrcy to tear up 

3. 8v61si, svellesti, svelse, svellfemmo, svelleste, sv^sero 
9. svellendo; 10. sv^Ho 
Svolgtre^ to turn away, (th« same as volgere) 

F 5 . 



lOO •fmoLooT [Chap. 

SupporrCf to suppose, (the same as p'/tre) 
SutsUtere, to subsist, (the some as tutiatere) 

T^futUrc, to extend 

3. t^si, tcndi^sti, t6sc, tend<jmmo, tendi-ste, t^t>ero 

9. teudendo ; 10. t<::so 
T&rgere, to wipe 

3. U^rsi, tergesti, t<5rsc, tcrgemmo, terg<'Ste, U^rsero 
Tingcrc, or Tlgnere, to dye, or colour, (the same, as pingere) 
TogUrre, or T6rrt, to take, (the «ame as scidgUere) 
Torcere, to wrest 

3. t6rsi, torcdsti, t6rse, torc<'mino, torc^ste, Uirsero 

9. torc(''ndo ; 10. t6rto 
Tradurre, to translate, (the same as addurre) 
Trafiggerc, to pierce, (the same as ajfiiggere) 
Tramcttere^ to put between, (the same as mitlete) 
Trurre, or Traere, or Trahere, to draw 

'. '■ 'S,"' } {^'^'\ '-. {'TS'} "^'^' '^^-^^°''° ■ 

2. tra^va, &c. 

3. trassi, tra^sti, trasse, tra^mmo, tra^ste, trassero 

4. trarro, &c. 

5. tragga, tragga, tragga, trajamo, tragghiate, traggano 

6. tra^ssi, &c. 

7. trarr^i, &c. 

8. , trai, or traggi, tragga, trajamo, tra^te, traggano 

9. tra^ndo ; 10. tratto 

Trascdglicre, or Trascerre, to choose, (the same as scigliere) 
Trascdndere, to surpass, (the same as sccndere) 
Trascorrere^ to go beyond, (the same as correre) 
Trascrtvere, to transcribe, (the same as scrivere) 
Trasfundcre^ to transfuse, (the same z.?, fondere) 
Trasmittere, to transmit, (the same as mittere) 
Trasporrey to transpose, (the same as porre) 
Iravolgere, to turn upside down, (the same as volgere) 

Uccidere, to kill, (the same as recidere) 

UngerCf or L'gnere, to anoint, (the same as pungere) 

Filip^ndere, to despise, (the same as sosp^ndere) 
Fincere, to conquer 

3. vinsi, vinc^sti, vinse, vinc^mmo, viac^ste, vinsero, 

9. rinc^ndo ; 10. vinto 
Fiver e, to live 

3. vissi, viv^sti, visse, vir^mmo, vir^ste, vissero 

4. vi^To^ rivrai, &c. 



IX.] OP VERBS. 107 

7. vivr^i, vivr^sti, &c. 
9. viv^ndo ; 10. vissuto 
VdlgerCy to turn 

3. v61si, volg^sti, v61se, volg^mmo, volg^ste, v6l8ero 
9. volg^ndo; 10. v61to 

Verbs of the 2c? Conjugation, in ere long. 

65. I have said> in paragraph 58, that it is only in the 
twenty-two verbs which I have there given a list of, that the 
final ere is long. In the following list of verbs in ere long there 
are more than twenty-two ; but, let it be observed, that of all 
these here given, which are not merely repetitions of those in 
the list under paragi-aph 58, every one is formed from one 
or other of the twenty -two in thai list. The verb B^e, to 
drink, having only two syllables, is an exception ; and this 
is only a contraction of B^vere, which is a regular verb of the 
2d Conjugation in ere short. 

Antiveddre, to foresee, (the same as vedere) 
Assede're, to be sitting 

3. assisi, assed^sti, assise, assed^m mo, assed^ste, assisero 

9. assed^ndo ; 10. assiso 
Asten^re, to abstain, (the same as tenere) [ 
Attendre, to attain, (the same as tenere) 
Avveddrsi, to perceive, (the same as vedere') 
Ave're, to have (see this verb conjugated at full, page 80.) 

Bdrey or Bdvere, to drink , 

1. b^o, b^i, b^e, beidmo, be^te, b^ono 

2. be^va, &c. 

3. b^vvi, be^sti, b^vve, be^mmo, be^ste, b^vverq 

4. bero, &c. 

5. b^a, b^a, b^a, beiamo, bei&te, b^ano 

6. beessi, &c. 

7. berei, &c. 

8. ■-, b^i, b^a, beidmo, be^te, b^ano 

9. bev^ndo j 10. bevuto 

Cadire, to fall 

3. caddi, cad^sti, cadd^ cad^mmo, cad^ste, c&ddero 

9. cad^ndo ; 10. caduto 
Compiace're, to comply with, (the same as piacdre) 
Condolerej to condole, (the same as doldre) 
Conien6'ej to contain, (the same as tenure) 



108 



ETYMOLOGY 



[Chap. 



DecatUrcy to decline, (the same as cad^e) 
Jhspiar^re, to displease, (the same as piaare) 
fJissuath'rey to dinsuade, (the same as pertuad^e) 
iJoldre, or JJoUrsi, to grieve 

1. d61go, } 

or >-duuli, duole, dogllamo, dol^-te, dulgono 
d6g\\o J 

2. doleva, &c. 

3. d61hi, doiesti, d61se, dogrKjmmo, dogU<!'Ste> dolsero 

4. dorrd, &c. 

5. duuli, d61ga, d61ga, dogliamo, dogIi4te, dolgano 

6. dol(jssi, &c. 

7. dorr^, &c. 

8. , du61i, d(Sl2rR, dogU4mo, delete, dcf'lgano 

9. doltndo i 10. doluto 
Uovdre, to owe 



d{'hhn, 




ddbbi,^ rddbbe, 
^vi, [} deve, 
r (\ or 
i J (^dee, de* 



/^ d<^bbono, 
"debbiAmo, "^ V d^vono, 

Idobbi/imo. ldovdte,/^*^'5T'*"°» 
dov^mo J 



'"^ deooo, 
or 
deooo 



2. dov^va, &C. 

3. dov^tti, dov^sti, dov^tte, dov^mmo, dov^ste, 

4. dovro, &c 

rd^bba,1 

5. d^bba, d^bba, \ or > 

ioj 



f d 



ld<-ggi( 



dobbidmo, dobbi^te, 



dovettero 
debhano 



r 

lu- 



or 



g^ano 



6. dov^ssi, &.C. 

7. dovr^i, &c. 



I or *' li or ' I dobbidrao, dobbi4te,-J ^^^^o» 
(d^vi, J Id^va, J J ,,:^_ 



^debbano, 
d^vano, 

or 
d^ggiano 



9. dov^ndo; 10. dov6to ^ 

EquivaUrey to equal in worth, (the same as vulere) 
Giacdre^ to lie down, (tlie same as tncerc) 
Intertejiere, to entertain, (the same as tenure) 
Manienere, to maintain, (the same as Uncre) 
Ottertere, to obtain, (the same as ten^e) 

Pa*ire^ to appear 

1. p4jo, piri, pire, pajdmo, par^te, pdjono 

2. par^va, &c. 



rpuo, ^ ^ 

1. p6sso, puol, < or V possidmo, pot^te,, < 



IX.] OP VERBS. 109 

3. pArvi, par^sti, pdrve, par^mruo, par^ste, parvero 

4. parrd, &c. i 

5. pAja, pAja, P^ja, pajAiuo, pajite, pdjano 

6. par^ssi, &c. 

7. parrel, &c. 

8. pari, pdria, paridmo, par^te, pdjano 

9 par^ndo ; 10. pdrso, or paruto 
Pe7'suad^re, to persuade [siidsero 

3. persudsl, persuad^sti, persndse, persuad^mmo, persuad^ste, per- 

9. persuad^ndo j 10. persudso 
Piacdre, to please, (the same as tac^re) 
Possedere, to possess, (the same as sed^re) 
Pot ere, to be able 

p6ssoDo 

. „. . r__ , ^ , , or 

Cpu<5te 3 ^ pdnno 

2. pot^va, &c. 

3. pot^i, pot^ste, potfe, pot^mrao, pot^ste, pot^rono 

4. potr6, &c. 

f p6ssa,1 

5. p<5ssa, < or >p6ssa, possiAmo, possiate, possano 

(^p6ssi J 

6. pot^ssi, &c. 

7. potr^i, &C. I? 

8. {No Imperative Mode.") 

9. pot^ndo ; 10. potuto 
Preseddre, to preside, (the same as sede're) 
Prevalerej to prevail, (the same as vale're) 
Prevedere, to foresee, (the same as veddre) 
Provved^e, to provide, (the same as vedere) 

Rattenere, to arrest, (the same as tenure) 
Raweddrsi, to be reformed, (the same as veddre) 
Riavere, to have again, (the same as the Auxiliary avdre) 
Ricaddre, to fall again, (the same as cad^re) 
Rimatidre, to remain 

1. rimdngo, rimdni, rimdne, rimaniamo, riman^te, rimdngono 

2. riman^va, &c. 

3. rimdsi, riman^sti, rimdse, riman^mmo, riman^te, rimdsero 

4. rimarrq, &c 

5. rimdnga, rimdoga; riminga, rimanidmo, rimangfaidte, rimangano 

6. riman^ssi, &c. 

7. rimarr^i, &c. < 

8. '■■'■ ■ rimdni, rimdnga, rimaoidmo, rimaudte, rimdngano 

9. riman^ndo ; 10. rimdsto, or rimd&o 
Risap&ey to know, (the game as aapcre) 



110 



KTYMOLOOT 



liiscdAre, to reside, (the Rarae as sed/re) 
Riten^e, to withhold, (the same as tenure) 
Jiivcd<fre, to sec again, (the same as vcdt'rr) 
RivoU'rr, to wish again, (the same as voldre) 



[Chap. 



Sapc're, to know 

1. so, 

2. sap(:va, &c 



s4i. 



sa, 



!sap«:8ii,^ tsepp< 
or W or 
sdpi 3 (siipc 



i 



3. s<?ppi 

4. sapro, &c. 

fsAppia, ^ 

5. sdppia, < or V sappia, 

(siippi, 3 

6. sap^ssi, &c. 

7. saprdi, &c. 

8. sdppi, sdppia, 

9. sap^ndo ; 10. sapvito 

Scad(^re, to decay, (the same as cadcre') 
Sed^re, to sit 

1. or > siddi, 
8i<5do 3 

2. sed^va, &c. 

3. sed^i, &c. 

4. sedero, &c. 

5. s^gga, s^gga, 

6. sed^ssi, &c. 

7. seder^i, &c. 
siedi, fsi^da, ) 

8. ] or \ 

Ui^-gga3 



sappiHino, 
sap^mmo, 

sappiAmo, 



sap(^'te, 
sapeste, 



snnno 



scpp^ro 



sappiiimo, 



sappi4te, sAppiano 



sappidte, siippiano 



si^de, sedicimo, sedete, 



fs^-ggono, 
isi^dono 



s^gga, sedidmo sedidte, seggano 



sedidmo, sedete, 



Jsiedano, 
or 
seggano 



9. seddndo ; 10. seduto 
Soggiacdrc, to be subject to, (the same as giacere) 
Soprassed^re, to supersede, (the same as seder t) 
Sosten^rcy to sustain, (the same as tenure) 
Spiacdre^ to displease, (the same as piacere) 
Sprotvedih-e, not to provide for, (the same as vede're) 



taccidmo, tac^te tacciono 



Tacere, to be silent 

1. tdccio, tAcJ, t4ce, 

2. tac^va, &c. 

3. tdcqui, tac^sti, tAcquc, tacemrao, tac^ste, tAcquero 
4. . tacero, &c. 

5. tAccia, tdccia, tdccia, taccidmo, taccidte, tdcciano 

6. tac^ssi, &c. ' > . • ♦ 



IX.] 

7. tacer^i, &c. 



OP VERBS. 



Ill 



8. 



tacci, tdccia, taccidino, ^ tac^te, tacciano 



9. tacendo ; 10. tacidto 
Tendre, to hold 

1. tengo, ti^ni, ti^ne, 

2. ten^va, &c. 

3. t^nni, ten^sti, t^nne, 

4. terro, &c. 

5. t^nga, t^nga, t^nga, 

6. ten^ssi, &c. 

7. terr^i, &c. 



rtenghiimo, 
< or 
(teni^mo 



1 



ten^te, tdngouo 



ten^mmo, ten^ste, t^nnero 



f tenghidmo. ■\ ' 

J-teni^te, tengano 



< or 

'tenidm 



tenidmo J 



8 



or (• ■) «^ ' ten^te, t^nga 
9. ten^ndo ; 10. tenuto 






tenidmo 3 



no 



Trattenere, to entertain, (the same as tenere) 
Travedere, to see double, (the same as vede're) 



Valdre, to be worth 

1. vdlgo, 1 

or > vdli, vdle, vagliamo, 
v%lio ) 

2. raMva, &c. 

3. vilsi, val^sti, vdlse, val^mmo, 

4. varro, &c. 

5. vdglia, vdglia, vdglia, vaglidmo, 

6. val^ssi, &c. 

7. varr^i, &c. 

8. , v^li, vdglia, vaglidmo, 



val^te, vdgliouo 

val^ste, vAlsero 
vaglidte, vdgliano 



yal^te, 



vdgnano 



vedete, vedono 



9. val^ndo ; 10. valuto, or valsuto 
Vedere, to see 

v^do, T 

1. or > v^di, v^de, vedidmo, 

2. ved^va, &c, 

3. vidi, ved^sti, vide, ved^mmo, I v.ed^ste, videro. 

4. vedro, &c. 

v^da, ^ fv^da, vr v^da, ;j r vedidrao, t rvedidte, l fveddno, , 

5. oi- W or >< or >< or >< or ?<i or 
v^gga) (v^gga ) (v^gga 3 (veggidmoJ (veggidteJ (v^ggano 

6. ved^ssi, &c. 

7. vedr^ij &c. 



112 ETTMOLooT [Chap. 

v^di 1 fv^da, j r vcdiAmo, j rvedano 

8. *^ I J "^ (1 "'^ ( ved^te, } or 

ve' J 'v<;gga) t veggiAmoJ (r^ggano 

9. vedc'tado, or vegg<!'ado; 10. veduto, or visto 
VoUrCy to be willing 

voglio,^ fvu61i,^ rvu61e,i rvogHArao,^ 

vo' J 'vu6i 3 (ruo' 3 (vol6mo 3 
2. vol<iva, &c. 
.3. v611i, vol^sti, v611e, vol(5mmo, voleste, vullero 

4. voni, &c. 

5. Toglia, v6glia, voglia, vogHAmo, vogli^te, v6gliano 

6. vol(5s3i, &c. 

7. vorr^i, &c. 

9. vol^ndo ; 10. voldto, or ^volsuto 

Verbs of the Sd Conjugation, in irk. 

^holire^ to abolish 

1. aboHsco, abolisci, abolisce, abolidino, abolite, aboliBCODO 

2. aboliva, &c. 

3. abolii, &c 

4. aboliri, &c. 

5. abolisca, abolisca, aboUsca, abolidmo, abolidte, aboliscano 

6. abolissi, &c 

7. abolir^i, &c. 

8. ' abolisci, abolisca, aboliamo, abolite, aboliscano 

9. abol^ndo ; 10. abolito 

Abornrcy or Abborrire, to abhor, (this verb may be conjugated as 

a regular verb, like sentire ; or as an irregular, like abolire) 
Apparire, to appear, (the same as abolire, excepting in 

apparli, "] rappirirono, 

3. or >apparisti, appdrve, apparlmmo, appariste, ' or 
appdrvi J (appdrvero ^ 

9. appar^ndo ; 10. apparito, or appdrso 
Sprite, to open 

aprii,^ Capri, "^ Taprlrono, 

,3. ^ f aprlsti, < or >apiimmo, aprlste, < or 

ap^rsi]) (apdreej (^ap^rsero 

9. spr^ndo ; 10. ap^rto 

Assalire, to assault, (the same as salire) 

Assorbirey to absorb : the same as abolire, excepting^ 

10. assorbito, or as86rto 
Awentre, to arrive, (the same as ventre) 

Avi^ertirey to advertise, (the same as abolire : or it may be regular, like 
sentire) 



IX.] " OP VERBS. 

Benedircy to bless, (the same as dire) 

Circonvenirey to circumvene, (the same as aentre') 
Compartre, to appear, (the same as apparire) 
Construire, or Costruire, to construe, (the same as instruire) 
CorUraddire^ to contradict, (the same as dire) 
CoHtravvemre, to contravene, (the same as ventre) 
Convenire, to suit, or be proper, (the same as venire) 
Coprire, to cover, (the same as aprire) 
Cucircy to sew 

1. ciicio, cuci, cuce, cucidmo, cucile, 

3. cucii, &c. 

5. cucia, cucia, cucia, cucidmo, cucidte, 

9. cuc^ndo; 10. cuci to ^ 

DirCy to say 

1. dico, diei, dice, 

2. dic^va, &c. 

3. dissi, dic^sti, disse, 
, 4. diro, &c. 

5. dica, dica, dica, 

6. dic^ssi, &c. 

7. dir^i, &c. 

8. di', dica. 



113 



cuciono 



cuciano 



dicidmo, dite, dicono 
dic^mmo, dic^ste, dissero 
diciamo, diciate, dicano 



diciamo, dite, dicano 



9. dic^ndo ; 10. d^tto 



Discoprire, to discover, (the same as Aprire) 
Disconvenire, to be unfit, (the same as venire^ 
Discucire, to unsew, (the same as aicire) 
Disdire, to unsay, (the same as dire) 
Divenire, to become, (the same as venire) 



empidrao, emplte, empiono 



empiamo, empidte, ^mpiano 



Empire, to fill 

1. ^mpio, ^mpi, ^mpie, 

2. empi^va, &c. 

3. empii, &c. 

4. empiero, &c. 

5. empia, ^mpia, ^mpia, 

6. empi^ssi, &c. 

7. empi^rei, &c. 

8. ^mpi, ^mpia, empidmo, emplte, ^mpiano 

9. empi^ndo ; 10. empito 
Escire, to go out, (th^ same as uscire) 

Jnghiottirey to swallow, (the same as aholire : or it may be regular, like 
sentire) 



114 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

Iiistrnirc, to invStruct : the same as ubolirc, excepting in 
.'i. insln'issi, instruisti, instruMC, instruimtno, instrulstc, instnissero 
9. iDStriiindo ; 10. instruito, or instrutto 

Interdire, to interdict, (the same as dire) , 

Intrrventre, to intervene, (the same as venire) 

Maledire, to curse, (the same as dire") 

Morirc, to die 

niuojo,^ f muorc,^ rmuoj.irao,^ r muojono, 

1. or .-muori, < or |..' nr V inoritc, ■] or 
niuro 3 'm6re ) 'moriAmo J (Tn('»rono 

2. moriva, &c. 

3. morii, &c. 

4. morri, Sec. 

5. mu6ja, muoja, rauuja, muojamo, niuoj.'ite, mu6jano 

6. morissi, &c 

7. niorr^'i, or morir<5i, &C. ' 

imiuri,^ f mu6ja ^ fmuoj/imo,^ r mn^jano 

8. or >< or Y\ ''^ ( morlte, -| ot 

muri J ' mora ) (moriaino ) (m6rano 

9. morendo i 10. m6rto 

Nutrircy to nourish, (the same as abolire : or it may be regular, Hke 
seiitire) 

Offrircy to offer, (the same as nprire) 

Pervenire^ to arrive, or to attain, (the same as venire') 
Predire, to predicty (the same as dire) 
Preve^nire, to prevent, (the same as venire) 

Riapparire, to reappear, (the same as apparirc) 
JUaprire, to reopen, (the same as aprire) 
Ribenedirc, to bless anew, (the same as dire) 
Ricoprirc, to cover anew, (the same as coprire) 
Ridire, to say anew, (the same as dire) 
Riescire, to go out again, (the same as riuscire) 
RiTivenire, to find again, (the same as ve?nre) 
Risalire, to go up again, (the same as snlire) 
Risovventrey to remember, (the same as venire) 
Rivcnirey to return, (the same as venire) 
Riuscire f to succeed, (the same as uscire) 

Saltre, or Saglire, to go up 

1. s41go, sdli sdle, salghidmo, salite, silgono 

2. saliva, &c. 



IX,] 



OP VERBS. 



115 ' 



salii,-) 

'"or > 

sdlsi J 



3. ''or V sal^sti, 
sdlsi J 

4. sagliero, &c. 

5. sdlga, sdlga, 

6. sagliessi, &c. 

7. saglier^i, &C. 

8. sdli, 



It' ) 

(.sAlseJ 



sallste, < 

(,silsero 



salirono 
or 



sallmmo, 
s^lga, salgliidmo, salghidte, sillgano 



sdlga, salghidmo, salite, salgano 



9. sal^ndo ; 10. sallto 

Scomparire, to dissappear, (the same as appartre) 
Sconvemre^ to be unfit, (the same as venire) 
Scoprircy to discover, (the same as coprire') 
Scucire, to unsew, (the same as cucire^ 
Seppelire, to bury : the same as abolire, excepting in 

10. seppellito, or sepolto 

Soffrire, or Sofferire, to suffer, (the same as aprire^ 
Sopravvenh'e, to supervene, (the same as venire) 
Sovvenire, to relieve, (the same as venire) 
Sovvenirsi, to remember, (the same as venire^ 
Svenire, to faint, (the same as venire) 



udidmo, udite, 



Udire, to hear 






1. 6do, 


6di, 


6de,. 


2. udiva, &c. 






3. udii, &c. 


- 




4. udiro, 6cc. 






5. 6da, 


6 da. 


6da, 


6. udissi, &c. 






7. udir6i, &.^,. 






8. 


6di, 


6da, 



<5dono 



9. udendo ; 10. udito 
Venire, to come 

i. v^ngo, vi^ni, vi^ne. 



udidmo, 



udidmo, 



udidte, 
udite. 



(5dano 



ddauo 



{venidmo, ") 
or >venite, 

venghidmo j 

2. veniva, &c. 

3. v^nni, venisti, vdnne, ven^mmo, veniste, 

4. verro, &c. \ 



v^ngono 



v^nnero 



5. v^nga, v^nga, venga, 



6. venissi, &c. 

7. verr^i, &c. 



[venidmo, 

or ^ venghidte, v^ngano 

veughidmo 



vi^ni, v^nga. 



9. vendndo ; 10. ven6to 



{ 



venidmo, ") 



or 
venghiamo 



/ 



venite, vdngano 



116 



KTYMOLOGT 



[Chap. 



Vsvire^ or Escire, to go out 

1. <55Co, 6ic\, ^8Ce, 

2. tuciva, &c. 

3. uscii, 6lc 

4. usciro, &c. ^ 

5. ^a, (^-scai ^sca, 

6. UHcissi, &lC. 

7. uacirei, &c. 

8. dsci, ^'sca, 

9. usc<*mlo J 10. uscito 



usciAmo, 



usci^mo, 
uscidmo, 



uscite, 



^scono 



U8ci4te, ^scano 
uscite, ^scano 



Verbs Defective. 

66. There are a few verbs which are called Defective, be- 
cause they are wanting in some Modes or Times. They are 
Gire, or Ire ,• Sol6-€ ; Cal^e ; Lec&e or Lic^re ; Olire; Rid- 
dere, Reddire, or Redire ; Alger e ; Arrogere-, and Cciggere. 



Gire, or Jre, to go 
1. 

: 2. glva,-) 
or V 
jva, J 



.3. gii, 



4. gir6, 



givi, 

[gisti, 



(isti 3 



girdi, 



g'» 
gira, 



.5. 



6. gissi, 
; 7. girei, &c. 



gissi, glsse, 



8. 



9. g^ndo J 10. gito, or ito 
SolSrcj to be wont, or accustomed 



ue- 




TgiAmo, 
(_gimo J (,ite 



givimo, giv 



.'4te, I 



givano 

or 
ivano 



gimmo, giste, girono 

igir^mo,^ f gir^te,^ rgirdnno 
. "'' o '"■ o *"■■ 
iK'mo J I ir6te J (irAnno 



giamo, giate, 
gissimo, gisie, 

fgite,") 
Lite J 



glssero 



fsu61i,^ fsuole,^ rsogliamo,^ r 

1. soglio, )<"■('')'"'(') *"■ ^sol^te, < 
'suogli) (sole J 'solidmo J ( 



CSOglu^DO 

or 
3<51iono 



2. solera, &lC. 



IX.] 



OF VBRBS. 



117 



rs6gii, 1 

5. s6glia, \ <"" f 

6. sol^ssi, &c 

9. sol^ndo ; 10. soli to 



s6glia, sogliimo soglidte, sdgliano 



Caldre, to care for, (au impersonal verb : see Paragraphs 260 and 268.) 

LecSre, or Lic^re, to be lawful, or proper, (an impersonal verb : see 
Paragraphs 260 and 268.) ^ 

Olire, to smell well 

1. oliscOj 61i, ■ . 

2. ollva, olivi, olira, 



Rie'dcrey Reddtre, or Redtre, to return 
1. ri^do, riddi, ri^de, — 
5. ■ ri^da — 



olivano 



ri^dono 
ri^dano 



Algere^ to be cold 

1. 

3. disi, 



Arrogere, to add to 
1. 



Alge, 
ilse, 

arr6ge. 



3. arr6si, &c. 

9. arrog^ndo j 10. arroto 

Caggere, to fall 

1. caggio, cAggi, ckg^e^ 



jcaggidrao, 



fcdggi 
< or 
(caggi 



iggiao 
or > 

afftri J 



cdggiono 



cdggia, caggidmo, caggidte, cdggiano 



5. cdggia, 

9. cagg^udo 

67. Give or Ire is only a poetical verb : its meaning is just 
the same as that of Anddre, to go. Olire is a verb little in 
use, and only poetical. Riedere is only poetical, and means the 
same as Ritorndre, to return . Algere, is only poetical, and 
means the same as Geldre, to freeze. Arrdgere is only 
poetical. Cdggere, and its inflections, seem to be nothing more 
than variations of the verb Cad&e, to fall ; and they are not 
now in common use. 

68. In addition to the foregoing conjugations of verbs, and 
what has been said of them, I beg the reader's attention to the 
following Observations. 



lis ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

l.-^Thcre is one thing to be observed, which relates equally 
to all vcr])s, whether regular or irregular, namely, a dou- 
ble termination that there is a the 1st Person Singular of 
the Past Imperfect Time of the Indicative Mode. The 
Italians say amuva or amdvo, I loved ; credt'-va or cred^o, 
I believed ; scntwa or sentivo, I felt ; av{va or av6vo, I 
had ; ^ra or cro, I was ; and so on with aU verbs. The 
termination in a is the most strictly proper : that in o, 
more familiar. In writing, the Italians do, therefore, use 
amdva, credha, sentiva, avtta, &a, &c. ; while, in conversa- 
tion, they generally pronounce this part of the verb, 
amdvo, credevo, sentivo, avevo, f-ro, &c. 

2. — There are some verbs which are subject to a contrac- 
tion in their Infinitive Modes, as we may see by referring 
to the foregoing List. We see, for example, addurre, instead 
of add u cere ; appdrre, mstead of appdnere ; /orre, instead 
of tdgliere ; trdrre, instead of trdere, or trdhere; pdrre, 
instead of pdnere ; produrre, instead of producere ; sv^e, 
instead oi svcllere ; corre, instead of co^ //ere ; &c. 
. — Others, again, wliich have ng in the last syllable but 
one in the Infinitive, may turn the ng to gn ; as in 
attignere, instead of attingere ; mugnere, instead of mungere; 
pugnere, instead of piingere ; re^pignere, instead of res- 
pingere ; smugnere, instead of smiingere ; ugnere, instead 
of linger e ; &c. 

4. — In some Infinitives which have wo in them, the n may 
be omitted ; as in mdvere, instead of mudvere • promduere, 
instead of pi'omudvere ; rimdvere, instead of rimudvere ; 
&c. 

5. — WTien prepositions are afl5xed to the Infinitives of verbs, 
the prepositions are sometimes contracted; as in somrndt- 
tire, instead of sottomeftere : costniire, instead of con- 
st niire : wherein we use a contraction of the prepositions 
sOtto, under, and con, with. 

6. — ^The parts of the verb which are the most commonly 
subject to irregularity, are, the Infinitive Mode (as the -four 
last foregoing Observations show) the Present Time of the 
Indicative Mode, the Past Perfect Time of the Indicative 



XL] OT VERBS. 119 

Mode, tlie Future Time of the Indicative Mode, the Present 
Time of the Subjunctive Mode, the Imperative Mode, and 
the Participle Passive. Some verbs are irregular in all of 
these Modes and Times ; but others are irregular in only 
a part of them. When a verb is irregular in the Present 
of the Indicative, it is also irregular in the Present of the 
Suhjunciive, and in the Imperative. 

7. — We find an h introduced, in some verbs, in a part of 
their changes. Tlie h is employed in verbs, the 1st person 
singular of the Present of the Indicative of which ends 
in CO or go. The h, so employed, is intended to preserve 
the hardness in the sound of the c or g. Thus, in the 
verbs giuocdre, to sport, and porre, to put, which, in the 
above said 1st person, make giu6co and p6ngo, we und 
giuochidmo, we sport, and ponghidmo, we put. The c and 
g here, if they were to stand immediately before the i's, 
would have to be sounded soft, contrary to the proper pro- 
nunciation. This is not the case, however, with the verbs 
ending in isco, which are mentioned in Observation 15. 

8. — In the 2d ■aiid 3d Conjugations, the Present of the 
Subjunctive may always be formed by changing the o of the 
Present of the Indicative to a : thus credere, to believe, 
makes credo, I believe, and creda, I may believe ; sentire, 

' to feel, makes sento, I feel, and senta, I may feel. The 
verbs avere, essere, and sapere, which make ubbia, sia, and 
sdppia, in the Present of the Indicative, are exceptions to 
this rule. 

9. — In the 2d Conjugation there is an instance in which 
the regular verbs are subject to a variety of termination 
in common with the irregular verbs. In the 1st and 3d 
Persons Singular, and the 3d Person Plural, of the Past 
Perfect Time of the Indicative, the terminations mav be 
either 4i, e, ^rono, or ette, ette, ettero : thus credere, to 
believe, may make, in the Past Perfect, either credei, crede, 
crederono, or, credetti, cred^tte, credettero. It is, however, 
only a part of the verbs of the 2d Conjugation that have 
this double termination. The following are some of those 
which have it. ■ • 



ISO 



KTYMOLOOY 



[Chap. 



Infi.vitivm. 1st Pkrsons Sinoolar. 

asxdlvere, to ftbuolre, makes assoUil, or assolritti 

cidere, to yield, li,ciT . . itti 

precidnre, to precede, . . . . f'i, or . . Ittl 

potcre, to be ablo, /i, or . . itti 

svccidere, to succeed, . . • . ii, or . . 6tti 

frimere, to be angry, «f*, or . . itti 

goilere, to enjoy, ^/, or . . itti 

j/crdcrc, to lose ^i, or . . iiti 

primere, to press, ^i, or . . itti 

rtndere, to render, . . . . ^/, or . . ctt% 

riccvere, to receive, ^i, or . . tJti 

vindcre, to sell, ei, or . . 6iti 



10. — The followmg is a repetition of the list before given 
(see paragraph 58) of the 22 verbs of the 2d Conjuga- 
tion in ERE long. Here may be seen how the Present 
and Past Perfect Times of the Indicative, and the Partici- 
ples Passive, of all these terminate. The figures stand 
for the same as they have done in the List of Irregular 
Verbs. 



Infinitives. 

avire^ to have, 
cadere, to fall, 
calire, to care for, 
dovtre, to owe, 
caper e, to hold, 
doUre, to grieve, 
giacerc, to lis down, 
godire, to enjoy, 

partre, to seem 

piaccre, to please, 
persuadtre, to persuade, 
potire, to be able, 

rlmKijUre, to remain, 

sapire, to know, 
sedire, to sit, 
soUre, to be accustomed, 
tacire, to be silent, 
tenere, to hold, 
temdre, to fear, 
txiUrc, to be worth, 

redire, to see, 

voUre, to be willing. 



, ho, ihhi, 

cudo, cdddl, 

(see paragraph 66). 

d^io, dovei, 

(obsolete, now spelt capire ; of 



No. 1. No. 3. No. 10. 

ainjto 
cadiito 

doviito 
£he 3d Conjugation). 
doluto 
giacruto 
goduto 
f parso, at 
\ pariito 
piaciuto 
perxudso 
potitto 

{rimasto, or 
rimAso 

Maputo 

seduto 

s6lito 

taciuto 

teniitQ 

temuto 

valuta 

veduto 

voluto 



ddglio, 
giuccU), 
gddo, 

Pajo, 

pi/tccio, 

qjersuadOf 

p6sso, 

rimdngo, 

so, 

sido, 

s6glio, 

t^iccio, 

terigo, 

timo. 



dUsi, 

giacqui, 

godii, 

pArvi, 

pidrqui, 

persudsi, 

potii, 

rim/tsi^ 

sippi^ 
sedei, 

tdcqui, 

tinni, 

temii. 



vdglio,OTvalgo vdlslf 
vido, veggo, I . ,, 
liggio, ] '^'^*' 

vdglio, vilUf 



IX.] 



OP VERBS. 



121 



1 1 . — The following examples will give some idea of how 
the irregular verbs in ere short, of the 2d Conjugation, 
do, according to the endings of the Infinitive commonly 
form the Present and Past Perfect Times of the Indicative, 
and their Participles Passive. 



Infinitives, 

Ending in cere ; as, vincere, to conquer, which makes 

in dere ; as, (irdere, to bum, 

in gere ; as, pi&ngere, to weep, 

in gliere j as, cSgliere, to gather, 

I in lerej as, svillere, to root up, 
in mere ; as, imprimere, to print, 
in nere ; as, pdnere, to put, . 
in ndere ; as, prendere, to take, 
- in pere ; as, rSmpere, to break, 
in rere ; as, cirrere, to run, 
in tere j as, mettere, to put, 

in verej as, scrivere, to write, 



No. 1. No. 3. 



No. 10. 



vmco. 


vtnsi, 


vinto 


. ardo. 


arsi, 


arso 


. piango, 


piansi. 


plant 


colgo, 


colsi. 


colto 


. svello. 


svelsi. 


svelto 


imprimo, 


impressi, 


impress 


pongo. 


post. 


posto 


prendo. 


presi. 


preso 


rompo. 


ruppi. 


rotto 


corro. 


corsi. 


corso 


metto, 


misi. 


messo 


scrivo. 


scrissi. 


scritto 



12. — Some of the irregular verbs, of the second Conjuga- 
tion, ending in si in the Past Perfect, have the s double^ 
as in the above examples of scrissi, and impressi. The 
following are the greater part of them. 



Infinitives. 


No. 1. 


No. 3. 


No. 10. 


addurre, to allege, makes adduce. 


addussi, 


addotto 


affiggere, to affix, . . . 


. ajiggo, 


affissi, 


affisso 


ascrivere, to ascribe. 


. ascrivoj 


ascrissi, 


ascritto 


attrdre, to attract, . . 


. . attraggo, 


attrassi. 


attratto 


commdvere, to move, . . 


. commovo. 


commossi. 


commosso 


eondurre, to conduct. 


. conduco, 


condussi. 


condotto 


contrdrre, to contract. 


. . contraggo 


, contrassi. 


contratto 


correggere, to correct, , 


. correggo, 


corressi, 


corretto 


cuScere, to cook, . . 


. . cuoco, 


cossi. 


cotto 


dirigere, to direct. 


. . dirigo. 


diressi, 


diretto 


distrdrre, to take off, 


. distraggo. 


distrassi. 


distratto 


distruggere, to destroy, 


. distruggo. 


distrussi. 


distrutto 


eleggere, to elect, . . . 


. eleggo. 


elessi. 


eletto 


erigere, to erect, . . 


. . erigo. 


eressi, 


eretto 


esprlmere, to express. 


. . esprimo, 


espressi. 


espresso 


Jigger e, to thrust in, . . 


• J^ggo, 


fissi. 


fitto 


introdurre, to introduce, 


. introduco. 


introdtissii 


introdotto 


imprimere, to print, . . 


. imprimo. 


impressi. 


impresso 


inddrre, to induce, . . 


. indiico, 


indussi, 


indotto 


leggere, to read, . . . 


• leggo. 


lessi. 


letto 


muivere, to move, . . 


. . movo. 


mossi, 


mosso 


negUgere, to neglect, . 


. . negligo. 


neglessi, 


negletto 


opprimere, to oppress. 


. . opprimo, 


oppressi, 


oppressd 


percu6tere, to strike, . 


. . percuoto, 

a 


percossij 


percosso 



122 





ETYMOLOGY 






Infinitiv»9. 


l»iO. 1. 


No 3. 


No. 10. 


yrodiirrc, to produce, 


. . produce. 


frodtissl, 


prodotto 


jirinii/^rtrf, to promote, 


. . yromoip, 


promnssi. 


prnmoxso 


prutcgfurr, to protect, 


• • Vrotfggo, 


protcxsi, 


protctto 


rijigere, to rule, . . 


' • '■f/r^o. 


ressi, 


ri'tto 


ridiirre, to reduce, . 


. . riduco, 


ridussi, 


ridotlo 


riflitterc, to reflect, . 


. . riftttto. 


rljlessl. 


rijlrs.to 


riliirerr, to shine, . . 


. . riluco. 


rilussi. 


(wanting) 


rimlvcre, to remove, . 


. . rlinovo, 


rimo.txi. 


rimosso 


rtsriiitcre, to redeem, 


. . rlxcuoto. 


rUcotsi, 


"•Iscoxso 


scrireri, to write, . . 


. . scrito. 


scrissi. 


scritto 


xcudtere, to shake. 


. . scuoto. 


scossi, 


scnxso 


xe(ifirre,tn seduce, . . 


. . seduco, 


sedussi. 


sedotto 


soppriwtre, to suppress 


, . sopprimo. 


soppressi. 


soppres.10 


xtritggere, to destroy, . 


. • struggo. 


strussi. 


strutto 


sincuierc, to succeed, 


. . succedo, 


successi. 


siicrexso 


truditrre, to translate, 


. . traduco. 


tradussi, 


trad otto 


trajiggere, to transfix, 


• . trafggo. 


trajissi. 


trajitto 


triirre, to draw, . . . 


. . traggo, 


trassi, 


tratto 


viverc, to live, . . . . 


. . vivo. 


vissi, 


visxuto 



[Chap. 



13. — It is useful, as a general rule, to know, that the 1st per- 
son singular of the Past Perfect, Indicative, in the 2d 
Conjugation, does, whenever the verb is irregular, always 
end in i ; that the 3d person singular of the verb so 
ending is formed by dropping the i and putting an e in 
its place ; and that the 3d person plural in the same Tinae 
and Mode is formed by adding ro to the 3d person sin- 
gular : as, cdddi, I fell, cddde, he fell, cdddero, they fell ; 
Itssi, I read, Icsse, he read, lesser o, they read.— ^The other 
terminations in the Past Perfect Time are always regular, 
namely, those of the 2d singular, and the 1st and 2d 
plural ; so cadere and leggere make, in the Past Perfect, 
cadesti, thou didst fall, cad^mmo,-we fell, cadeste, you fellj 
and leggf'sti, thou readest, Uggemmo, we read, legghte, you 
read. Tliese three Persons may always be formed in this 
way, both in regular and irregular verbs ; change the 
final re of the infinitive to stiy and you have the 2d person 
singular ; as in the above examples of cadere, and Uggere, 
which becoine cadesti, leggcsti ; change the final i of the 
2d Person Singular to e, and you have the 2d Person 
Plural ; as in the above cadeste, legghte ; change the 
final re of the Infinintive to mmo, and you have the 1st 
person plural ; as in the above cademmo, l^gemmo. 



IX.] 



OF VERBS. 



123 



14. — Of the verbs of the 3d Conjugation, the following 
eight are more irregular than the rest ; their conjugation 
should be well attended to, because they happen to be 
verbs of great use : they are, aprire, to open ; coprire to 
cover ; dire, to say ; morire, to die ; salire, to go up ; udire, 
to hear ; venire, to come ; uscire, to go out. 

15. — The principal thing to be observed, as regards the irre- 
gularity of verbs of the 3d Conjugation, is, that a large 
part of those verbs have isc preceding the final letter in 
some of their changes. Thus, ardire, to dare, makes 
ar disco, I dare ; and not drdo : ar disci, thou darest ; and 
not drdi, &c. It is in the Present of the indicative, in 
the Present of the Subjunctive, and in the Imperative, 
that this irregularity takes place ; but never in any of the 
other Times and Modes. Look back at the list of irregu- 
lars in ire, and you will see aholire as an example. — There 
are not many verbs of this conjugation that are completely 
regular, in consequence of so many of them having the 
abovementioned isc. The following are the greater part 
of the perfectly regular verbs of the 3d Conjugation. Ail 
these are to be conjugated in just the same manner as 
Sentire, 



acconsentire, to assent to 
hollire, to boil 
compartlre, to divide 
consentire, to consent 
convertirc, to convert ^ 
dipartire, to part 
dissentirc, to dissent 
divertire, to divert 
divestire, to divest 
dormire, to .sleep 
fuggire, to flee 
investlre, to invest 
mentire, to ]ie 
partire, to depart 
pentire, to repent 
persegulre, to persecute 
pervertlre, to pervert 
presentire, to foresee 



proseguire, to prosecute 
ribollire, to boil again 
rifuggire, to take refuge 
ripartire, to divide 
, ripentire, to repent 
risentire, to awaken 
rivestlre, to dress again 
seguire, to follow 
servire, to serve 
sfuggire, to flee from 
smentire, to give the lie 
sobbollire, to boil slowly 
sort ire, to elect 
sovvertire, to subvert 
svestire, to undress 
travestire, to disguise 
vestivG, to dress 



16. — In Ga%«fl«i's Grammar the verb given as a model of re- 
gular verbs of this 3d Conjugation is one of those that have 

G 2 



124 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

have the isc. And I do not kaow but Galignani is right 
in considering these verbs as regulars, since, ad he ob- 
serves, there are, in the 3d Conjugation, as many as 
twenty verbs having terminations with the 25c for every one 
not having such terminations. In considering those verbs, 
therefore, which have the isc, and which have no further 
variation, (as abohre, for example) we may call them re- 
gular or irregular as we please : regular, in as much as 
they may all be conjugated just like abohre ; or irregu- 
lar, as they diff^^r from such as are in the foregoing list 
of thirty five, supposing those thirty five, and what few 
more there may be like them, to be the only perfectly re- 
gular verbs of the 3d Conjugation. 

17. — Tlie verbs of the 3d Conjugation, almost all, make their 
1st Person Singular of the Past Perfect of the Indicative 
inii; as, seppelUre, to bury, makes seppellM, I buried. 
But this double i, in these cases, is, by some, rejected, and 
ay is put in its place; as, seppellj, 1 buried; use;, I went 
out, instead of uscii. 

18. — There are some of the verbs of the 3d Conjugation 
which may be conjugated either with the isc, or without it : 
that is to say, either hke abolire, or like sentire. Such 
are the following. 



Infinitives. 


No. 1. 




No. 1. 


abbelltre, to embelliah, makes 


abbellisco. 


or 


abbello 


aborrire, to abhor, 


aborrisco. 


or 


aborro 


mnnohilire, to enable, . . . 


annohilisco. 


or 


annobilo 


apparire, to appear, . . . . 


apparlsco. 


or 


apparo 


arrosslre, to blush, . . . . 


arrossisco. 


or 


arrosso 


avvertlre, to warn, . . . . 


avvertisco. 


or 


aiverto 


colorire, to colour, . . . . 


colorisco. 


or 


coloro 


indurire, to become hard, . . 


indurisco, 


or 


induro 


nutrire, to nourish 


. nut risen, 


or 


nutro 


offer ire, to offer, 


offerisco, 


or 


offcro 


proftrire, to proffer, . . . . 


pro/crisco. 


or 


profero 


soffrire, to suffer, . . . . , 


. soffrisco. 


or 


soffro 



19. — Some of the verbs in ire have, as may be seen in the 
hst of irregulars, a variation in the Past Perfect, and some 
are irregular in the Participle Passive ; as in the fol- 
lowing. 



IX.] 



OP VERBS. 



125 



Infinitives. No. 1. ' No. 3. 

r apparisco, 'i 

apparire, to appear, makes < or > apparsi, 

V. apparo 3 

aprii, ■) 



aprire, to open, 



. appavi 
aproj 



{ 



apersi'' 



comparire, to appear before, . comparisco, comparsi, 

r coprii, -j 
coprire, to cover, copro, < or > 

I. coper. li 3 

, rofferisco, » r offerii,-^ 

offerire, to offer, , . . . .^ or W or > 



instruire, to instruct, 
proferire, to proffer, . 



. . instruisco, instrussi, 

^proferisco,~\ 
. J or > proferii, 

\ iprofero ) 

c soffrisco,' 
soffrire, to suffer, ... < or 



■} 



soffrii, 



soffro 
seppellire, to bury, ..... seppelUsco, seppellii, 



No. 10. 
apparso 

aperto 

comparso 

coperto 

offerto 
instrutto 
proferto 

sofferto 

C seppellito, 
•{ or 

^seppolto 



20. — There are some verbs which belong, each, |to more 
than one Conjugation. Some have the termination of 
their Infinitive either in are or in ire, while others 
have it either in ere or ire. Those having the double 
termination in are or ire are the most numerous. Ac- 
cording to their termination, in are, ere, or ire', they be- 
long to one or the other of the Conjugations. Thus? 
Abbelldre is of the 1st, Abhellire of the 3d, Ass6rbere 
of the 2d, Assorbire of the 3d Conjugation, and so forth. 



'■'\ 



abbelldre 

or tto adorn 
abbellire 
color dre, 

or J-to colour 
colorire 
inacerbdre, 

or (.to grow sour 

inacerbire 
impazzdre 

or J- to grow mad 
ijnpazzire 
indurdreA 

indurire , ) 



Verbs in are or ire ; as, 

inanimdre. 






impalliddre,! 



or ^to encourage 

inanimire) 
falldre,] 

or ^to offend, or err 
falllre, 
imbrundre,' 

or >to make brown 

imbrunire. 



or ^to grow pale 



r 



iinpallidire, 
raffindrey^ 

or >to refine 

raffiniref 3 



12G KTYMOLOGV [Chap. 

Verbs in ere or ire ; as, 

'axsurbcre,^ /rimcre,^ 

or / to abflorb or J-to be angry 

ui.fdrbiref* fremtre,} 

divirU'w,^ sovvirterc, 1 

or >to divert or ["to subvert 

dlvcrtire,} sovvertlrc, J 

21 . — One more Observation, relating to the Participles Passive. 
Tlie Participles Active are subject to hardly any irregularity : 
they are, always, for the 1st Conjugation, in undo and 
ante ; and, for the 2d and 3d Conjugations, always in 
' endo and ente. But, the Participles Passive are subject to 
a good deal of irregularity. First, observe, that all those 
of the 1st Conjugation are regular, whether they be of 
verbs regular or irregular, and all end in ato ^ as, amdto, 
loved, parldto, spoken, anddto, gone. Secondly, all the 
regular verbs of the 2d Conjugation must have their 
Participles in lito ; as, creduto, believed; venduto, sold. 
When they are not thus regular, they do always end in 
so or to ; but, then, the syllable preceding the so or to is 
very various. The following are examples. 

Pahticiples Passive, 

Ending in unto ; as pidngere, to weep, which makes pidnto, wept 
in drso ; as spurgere, to spread, .... spdrso, spread 

in dxo ; as rimancre, to remain, rimuso, remained 

in dto ; as ndscere, to be bom, ndtOy bom 

in ilto ; as sctgliere, to choose, scilto, chosen 

in into ; as spegnere, to extinguish, . . • spcnto, extinguished 
in irso ; as dispirgere, to disperse, .... dispcrso, dispersed 

in iso : as di/endere, to defend, difiso, defended 

in esso ; as mittcrc, to put, m^sso, put 

in isto ; as chitdcre, to ask, chicstu, asked 

in into; as cingere, to gird, clnto, girded 

in {so ; as dlvidcre, to diyide, d'lviso, divided 

in itto ; as affllggerc, to afflict, ' ajiitto, afflicted 

in iiito i as accriscere, to increase, . . . accr^.vc7Mto, increased 

in lilto ; as cogliere, to gather, c6lto, gathered 

in 6rso ; as correre, to run, c6rso, run 

in 6rto ; as acc&rgere, to perceive, .... accdrto, perceived 

in 6so ; as vascdndere, to hide, nasc6so, hidden 

in 6sto ; as p6rre, to put, p6sto, put 

in 6tto ; as cudcerc, to cook, cdtto, cooked 

in unto; &s giugnere, to join, ...... giunto, joined 

in vso ; HB chii'idere, to shut, tAiM.fO, shut 

in I'ttto ; as struggere, to destroy, .... striitto, destroyed 



IX.] ' OF VERBS. 127 

All these examples above, except that of riman&e, dire of 
verbs in ERE short : the Participles Passive of the twenty-two 
verbs in ERE long have already been given under Observation 
10. — The Participles Passive of the verbs of the 3d Conjuga- 
tion in ire all end in ito, as in sentire, servire, &c., excepting a 
very few, like these which follow, in which we find an irre- 
gularity. 



(aj>parso,-\ 
<apparito,j 



apparire, to appear, maies'j or > appeared 

^apparito,) 
aprire, to open, aperto, opened 

icomparso,^ 
or > appeared before 

comparito,) 

coprire, to cover, coperto, covered 

dire, to say, detto, said 

instruire, to instruct, .... instmtto, instructed 

tnorire, to die, morto, -[)ed 

cproferio, ■\ 
proferire, to proffer, . . - .< or vproffered 

Lproferito,) 

isepolto, "i 
or >buried 
seppeUito, 3 
sofferto, 
soffrire, to smSct, -J or J> suffered 



[sofferito,} 
10. venire, to come, venuto, come 

I must observe, that, in addition to these irregularities, there 
are a good many of the Participles Passive of verbs of the 1 st 
Conjugation which are very frequently contracted in their spell- 
ing. Such are the following ; and these it is necessary to at- 
tend to ; for, they frequently give rise to misunderstanding, from 
the circumstance of their being, when in the contracted form, 
generally the same words in spelling as the 1st person singular 
of the Present of the Indicative. Thus acconcio, the contraction 
of acconcidto, means / arrange, as well as arranged ; and so on 
with the greater part of the rest. 

accoiiciato, arranged, may be contracted to accdncio 

adornuto, adorned, ad&rno 

asciugdto, wiped, asciutto 

(ivexzato, accustomed, .... - avvezzo 

caricdto, loaded, cdrico 

cercuto, sought, , » . cc.rco 



128 KTYMOLOGT [Chap. 

comprt'ito, bought, may be contracted to cfrntpro 

conciuto, mended, concio 

cass/tto, caocellcd, cusso 

crcspitto, curled, or frizzed crcspo 

dcstato, awakened, di.sto 

fernu'ito, stopped, Jirmo 

goufliito, Hwelled, , . . . . gitnfio 

gmixtuto, spoiled, gitasto 



ingomhcrutoA Ciiigdmbcro, 

or > encumbered, , < or 

ingonthr/ito, ) lingOmOro 

lucerato, torn l/tcero 

libeHito, liberated, libera 

tnacrruto, subdued, or weakened, .... macero 

manifcstuto, manifested, manifesto 

mozzuto, cut off, mizzo v 

nettato, cleaned, nitto 

pagato, payed pi^go 

pestdto, beaten, or pounded, p&sto 

privfifo, deprived, prtvo 

scenUito, diminished, scimo 

sconcUito, deranged, scdncio 

seccato, dried, stcco 

sgomberuto,^ (sgimbero, 

or /disencumbered, \ or 

sgombrato, J Isgdmbro 

stancato, tired, .'itdnco 

toccata, touched, t6cco 

troncitto, cut, trinco 

toltuto, turned vilto 

vuotuto, emptied, vu6to 

scaric/tto, disburdened, scdrico 

scamputo, escaped, ^cumpo 

saziato, satisfied, suzio 

satviito, saved, salvo 

sporcuto, dirtied, sp6rco 

scalzuto, iinshod, scdlzo 

straccuto, fatigued, strucco 



1 



X.] OF ADVERBS. 129 



CHAPTER X. 



Etymology of Adverbs. 



69. The Etymology of this Part of Speech is a matter re- 
quiring but little study. Adverbs are subject to nothing of 
what is called declension or conjugation. They undergo no va- 
riations in their endings, in Italian, any more than words of 
the same Part of Speech do in English. I shall have little 
more to do than just to give a Kst of the most important of 
them. Adverbs are divided into different classes ; some gram- 
marians make more classes of them, some less. The classing 
of them is, to a certain extent, a matter of choice or taste; and 
they may be classed, in all languages, in one and the same 
way. The only Adverbs that I shall consider as belonging to 
distinct classes will be those of Time, of Place, and of Man- 
ner. See what is said of Adverbs under Paragraph 3, as re- 
spects their being sometimes compound. It will be observed,, 
by some pf the following examples, that the two languages are 
just alike in this respect. 

Adverbs of Time.. 

6ra, or or, now, sometimes 

or or<Xy presently 

d^ ora in ora, every hour 

ad ora ad ora, from hour to hour, continually 

adesso, now 

ultimam^te, lately 

G 5l 



130 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

nvovavK'nte, "^ , 
S- newly 

dijresco, ) 
poco/a, not Ioiilc since 
guari, a good while since v 

ifa indi innanzi, henceforth 
(ilf avvenire, for the future 
/ra poco, shortly 
sempre, always 
mniy never, ever 
giommdi, never, ever 
per sempre, for ever 

spesso, often ' • 

di rado, seldom 
suhito, immediately 
altre volte, formerly 
gih, already, or formerly 
ad oqni momtnto, at everv moment 
ogni giorno, every day 
giornalm^nte, daily 
frattdnto, in the mean time 
di gia, already 
fosto, soon 

fosto che, or tostocche, as soon as 
subito che, as soon as 
non si tosto, hardly 
qnando, when 
dappui, since 
dappoicK^, after 
appaia, "^ 

or Vhardly 

appenach^, J 
oggi, to day 
jeri, yesterday 
avantieri, ^ 

or > the day before yesterday 

jer Vdltro, ) 
jersera, last night 
jemiattina, yesterday morning 
domdni, to-morrow 



X.] OP ADVERBS. 131 

domaitina, to-morrow morning 

posdomdni, the day after to-morrow 

cmcora, yet 

di notte, in the night-time 

di gidrno, in the day-time 

tardi, late 

di bu6n ora, betimes 

di hu6n mattmo, early 

allorch^, when 

alldra, then 

di nuovo, again 

teste, just now ^ 

presto, quickly 

poi, then 

poiche, when, since, after 

dipdi, since 

di qua a poco, a little time 

dopo, ^ 

or > after 
dopo che, 7 
prima, 

or 



r* before 



prima che, 
avanti 

or 
avanti che-, 
innanzi, 

or 
innanzi che, 
anzif, -^ 

or > before, rather 

anzi che J 
mentre, '\ 

or Whilst 

'mentreche,J 



poscia, "^ 



or >after, since, since that 

poscia che, J 



i- 



132 ETYMOLOOT [Chap- 

di fjunndo in quando, 

or Vfrom time to time 

di tempo in tempo, 
dove, or ove, when 
fino, until 
fin adcsso, 

or /* 'till now 

finora, 

infino, until, as long as 
finoattanto^ "\ 

infinoattanto, f , .„ ., , 

•^ > till, until that 

or L * 

infinoattantoche J 

Adverbs of Place. 

dove, or ove, where 
donde, or ondc, whence 
verso dove, whither 
fin dove, how far 
quivi, there 
qua, -\ 

or Chere, thither 
qui, J 
cosfl, ^ 

or Mhere, thither 
costii, 3 
giii, down 
dietro, behind 
eniro, -* 

or ^within 

dentro, J 
fudri, without 
Id, 

there 



Id, ^ 

or J>i 

n S 



per tutto, every where 
su, up 

c/i 5o^^o, underneath 
di sopra, above 



XJ OP ADVERBS. 133 

vicino, near ^ 

. ovunque, everywhere, or wherever 
di qui, or quinci, hence 
di li, or di Id, thence ^ 

di cosfi, or di costmci, thence 
quindi, or indi, thence 
d' altronde, from another place 
di lontdno, from afar 
d'apprtsso, from hard by 
quinci su, from above 
quinc^ntro, from here within 
di qua, this way 
di la, that way 
Jin qua, to this place 
fin let, to that place 
fin costa, ^ 

or > as far as that 

fin cola, y 
cola, there 

lassu, above, or up there 
laggiu, below, or down there 
costaggiu, there below , 

costassu, there above 
verso qua, towards this place 
verso la, towards that place 

Adverbs of Manner. 

There are a great many words belonging to this class of 
Adverbs. Tliey are called Adverbs of Manner, because they 
express the manners in which acts are done, or in which things 
exist. Thus, when I say, he Xdi\k& foolishly , she sings beauti- 
fully, \hQ dog lies quietly ', the ^idYerhs foolishly , beautifully, and 
quietly, serve to express the different manners of the acts of 
talking and singing and the manner of the state of lying. Some 
of these adverbs are called, also, Adverbs of Degree, when 
they serve to modify the sense of an Adjective ; as when I 
say, this wine is tolerably good ; which means the same as, 
thrs wine is good in a tolerable degree* These Adverbs 



134 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

are formed, in Italian, as they are in English, from Adjectives. 
In English, we form the Adverb by adding ly to the Adjective, 
aa ill the foregoing exum])le9 of foolishly, beautifully, and 
(/wi<?//y, which are formed from the Adjectives /oo/is/i, beaut ful, 
and quiet. It is very much the same thing with the Italians, 
who form the Adverb by adding mente to the Adjective, ac- 
cording to the following rules. 

1 . — When the Adjective is one of those which end in o 
for the masculine singular, then the Adverb is formed by 
adding mente to the Adjective in its feminine termina- 
tion ; thus, from the Adjective rado, rare, the feminine 
singular of which is rada, comes the ^dverb radam^te, 
rarely. The following are examples : 

Adjectiyes. Adverbs. 



amorbso, amorous 
JrcttoUso, hasty 
printo, ready 
temerdirio, heedless 
giu^to, jxiflt 
infinito, icfmite 
eccessivo, excessive 
dotto, learned 



amorosamcnte, amourouBly 
/rettolosamente, hastily 
prontaminte, readily 
tcmcrariamcnte, heedlessly 
giustamcnte, justly 
infinitamente, infinitely 
eccesiliamhite, excessively 
dottaminte, learnedly 



2. — When the Adjective ends, in the singidar, in e, the 
Adverb is generally formed by adding mente to this ter- 
mination of the Adjective ; as in the following ex- 
amples : 



ArJECTIV£S. 

cttstante, constant 
repcnte, sudden 
dolce, sweet 
cortise, courteous 



Adverbs. 

costatitemente , constantly 
repentemcnte, suddenly 
dolceminte, sweetly 
corteseminte , courteously 



3. — When the Adjective ends, in the singular, in le, the 
Adverb is formed by adding mente to the Adjective; 
dropping, at the same time, the final e of the Adjective. 
The following are examples : 



Adjectives. 

convenevole, convenient 
piacivole, pleasant 
ridivole, ridiculotiB 
amorivole, kind 



Adverbs. 

contenevolmlnte, conveniently 
piacevolmente, pleasantly 
ridevolnUnte, ridiculoasly 
amorevolminte, kindly 



x.i 



OF ADVERBS. 



135 



4. — Under paragraph 54 I have noticed the termination 
which Adjectives have in issimo, which they make in 
order to express the sense of our word very. It is the 
same with these Adverbs of Manner and Degree. They 
are formed according to the 1st of the above three 
rules ; that is, they take the feminine termination of the 
Adjective in issimo, with the mente added to it. The 
following are examples : 



Adjectives. 

''ricco, rich 

ricchissimo, very rich 
Jelice, happy 

felicissimo, very happy 



Adverbs. 

riccaminte, richly 

ricchissimamcnte, very richly 
j'elicemcnte, happily 
fellcissimamtntey very happily 



The Adverbs will need hardly any further notice. Besides 
what I have already given, however, I will add a list of some 
of those most commonly used. I shall not take up room by 
inserting many of the great number which are formed from 
the Adjectives, terminating in mente, because I have just given 
rules for the manner of forming these, which rules may be 
very easily comprehended. Some might consider that the Ad- 
verbs in the following list should be divided into different 
classes ; and there are words here inserted which would not, 
perhaps, by some persons, be considered as Adverbs at all. 
The far greater part of them are, however, purely Adverbs ; 
and I leave the classifying of them to the discretion of the 
reader. 



/ 



•y C •- 



quanta, how much 

tanto, so much 

troppo, too much 

molto, much, very 

piU, more 

me piit, much more 

meno, less 

vie m£no, much less 

davantdggiOy more 

assdi pill, a good deal, much more 

alpiii, at the most 



I 

136 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. ' 

I 

alm6io, at the least 

niente (iff at to, not at all * 

altrettdnto, as much 1 

quasi, almost, as it were \ 

qfdtto, quite i 

del tutto, entirely j 

una volta, once \ 

due volte, twice '' 

tre volte, three times ' j 

tante volte, so many times, so often ! 
molte volte, many times, often 

quante volte, how many times, how often i 

primieramente, in the first place, first ^ 

secondariamente, in the second place, secondly 

in terzo luogo, in the third place, thirdly J 

soi^ra tutto, above i 

alpostutto, altogether ^ ^ 

in giro, by turns ^ 

in drdine, in order, orderly I 

in fine, ^ !j 

or r in fine, at last I 

alia fine, j ' 

insieme, together { 

certo, -\ , j 

or Vcertainly | 

dicerto, J 
veramente, "j 
da vero. 



in vero, 
nel vero, 

or 
in verity, J 
a U, in faith ^ 
siciiro, -^ 

or > certainly 

aZ sicuro, J 



)> truly, in truth 



X.] OP ADVERBS. 137 

al fermo, ") ,, 

-' . L assuredly 

per fermo, J 

bene, well 

si bene, 

or J> yes indeed 
si V V, 
si, 



' 1 • 
or >yes 

77. SI J 



mai SI, 

non, not 

no, no 

per nulla, . 

■on no account 



:■,}■ 



per ni^nte, 

mica, ne mica, or non mica, 

or > not indeed 

miga, ne miga, or non miga, ^ 
in conto alcuno, in no wise 
forse, ^ 

or > perhaps 

forse che, 5 

per avventura, by chance 
cosi, thus, as 

come, so, when, as - . 

siccdme, so, as 
in che modo, in what manner 
piilttosto, rather 
piU presto, sooner 
in^glio, better 
anzi, rather 
a guisa,~\ 

or VHke 
a modo, J 
ecco, behold 
^cco qui, see here 
^cco It, see there 
assdi, very 

pur assdi, very much 
smisuratam4nte, beyond measure 
fuor di misura, out of measure 



\^ ETTMOLOOY [Chap. 

solo, 



or V only, 

solamentc, J 

art 
lie, •\ 

. r 



da parte, a part 
particolarmtnte, 

or J^in particular, particularly 

in particol^re, 
app()sta, -V 

a bello studio, Von purpose, purposely 
a hella posta, J 
a disegno, designedly 
alia stordita, rashly 
infretta, hastily 
appena, '\ * 

or Miardly, not quite 

a mala pena,J 
a contra v6glia, ^ 

or > against one's will 

mal volentieri, j 
in un subito, ^ 

or >of a sudden 

subitam^te, y 
poco a poco, little by little 
passo a passo, step by step 
bel bello, softly, gently 
adagio, gently 

inginocchidne, upon one's knees 
tent6ne, '\ 

or rgroping 

brancol6ne,J 
carpone, upon all fours 
a pie, a foot 
male, ill 
p^ggio, worse 



XI.] -, OP PREPOSITIONS. 139 



CHAPTER XL 

Etymology of Prepositions. 

70. These, like the Adverbs, are subject to no change in 
their endings. They are, however, and some of them espe- 
cially, words of great importance, as respects the manner of 
using them along with other words. What I have to do here 
is, merely, to give a list of the Prepositions most commonly 
in use. 

di, of 

a, to, or at 

da, from, or by 

in, in 

7ie, in 

con, with 

per, for 

su, on, upon, or over 

These are the prepositions which may be joined in one 
word, with articles, as we have seen under Paragraph 29. 
The word ne, when written with a grave accent (ne) is a Conjunc- 
tion, and means nor or neither. In its capacity of preposition, it 
must be observed, ne is not used now-a- days unless it be joined 
with the article ; and the word in is employed -when no article 
immmediately foUows. Thus, to express " in this house," we 
must say, in questa ca^a ; and not, ne questa casa ; and, to ex- 
press " in the house," we must say, nella casa. In this latter 
case, it would not do to place the in before the article, and to 
say, IN la casa; though such mode of expression is not un- 
common in old authors. In the following list I have placed , 



1.40 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

several prepositions which take, immediately after them, one 
or other of the prepositions di and a. Tlie three prepositions 
di, a, and da, are called Signs of the Cases, and, as such, will 
need particular attention. See the remarks on Case, Paragraph 
277, and Syntax of Prepositions, Para^aph 307. 

avanti, before 

infra, 

intra, 

fra, ^within, between 

or 

tra, 

circa, towards, or about 

contra, or contra di, ^ . ^ 
. ,. J-a^amst 
contro, or contro di, j 

dopo, or dopo di, after, behind 

intorno a, \ 

intorno di, f j -u 4. 

\ around, about 

d* intorno, J 
dietro di,'\ 

or > behind 
di^fro a, } 
entro, or entro a, 
dentro, or dentro 
verso, -\ 

or J^towards 

verso di, J 
senza, without 
fudri di, ^ 

or > outside of, without 

difu6ri, j 

alldto di, ") , • J r 

, , J. > along side oi 
accanto di, J ° 

rimpetto a, or di, ^ opposite to, 

or > or 

dirimpeito a, or di, ) over against 



' 1 inside of, within 
a, J 



XL] 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



141 



\ 



near to, 

or 
hard by 



sino, or msino a, \ 
fino, or injino a, / as far as, 

or V or 

sin, or insin a, i up to 
Jin, or injin a, J 
appresso di, -v 

or >near to 

appresso a, J 
victno, 
vicmo di, 

or 
vicmo a ; 
presso, 
presso di, 

or 
presso a, 
sotto, 

sottodi, f under, beneath 

or i 
sotto a, J 
sopra, 
sopra di, 

or 
sopra a, 
lungo, 
lungo di, 

or 
lungo a, 
oltre di, ^ 

or V, besides 
oltre a, } 

di Id, di, on the other side of 
di qiid. di, on this side ©f 



1 



•upon, above 



' along 



142 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 



I 



CHAPTER XII. 



Etymology of Conjunctions. 



71. Here, again, we have to do with words which, Uke the 
Adverbs and Prepositions, never undergo any variation in 
their endings. The words of neither of these Parts of Speech 
are vers' numerous ; and all we have to do, in their Etymology, 
is to get the meanings of them by heart. When we come to 
the Syntax, we shall find, however, that Conjunctions, like 
Adverbs and Prepositions, will need very strict attention. 
'^The following list contains the greater part of the Italian Con- 
junctions. 

e, ed, or et, and 

0, or od, either 

11^, orned, nor, neither 

nemmcnOy -s 

neppure. Lor. not even 

neunche, i 

nemdnco, 
, che, that 

. , ,. Valso, still, yet 
ancora, or eziandio, } 



ovvtro, -N 

oppure, \ or 

ossia, J 

pare, yet, indeed, however 

tampdco, neither 

''Zf- ) although 
sebbene, ) 



XII.] 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



143 



ma, but 
' mondvm6no, ") 
nulladim^o, |i^evertheless 

intanto, meanwhile, yet, however 

perb, therefore 

tuttavia, ") 

tutta volta, P^ ^^^ ^^^^^'' however 

se, if 

se mdi, if ever 

con patto che, -» 

a condizidne c/je, /"P^^ condition that 

purehe, providing that 

a meno che, unless, except 

perch"^, 

perocch^, 

perciocch'^ )> because, in order that 

a caiisa che, 

diinque, *) 

J >then, therefore 

adimque, j 

percib, ^ 

onde, V therefore 

la6nde, j 

per la qual cdsa, therefore 

per consegumza, by consequence, accordingly 

accib, "\ 

acciocche, f 

^^u^ r^ order that, to the end that 

ajfine, L 

a_ffinche, J 

di maniSra che, so that 

del resto, as for the rest 

ora, or oro, now 

poich^, } . 

(•since, 
le, ) 



as 



posciache 

in gidsa che, } 

in maniera che, ) 

se non, saving, except 

tanto che 

mentre che 



so as, in such a wav 






144 ETYMOLOGY [Chap. 

tnbiunte che,) 
si ben Che, i«° *^^* 
forse che, perhaps 

eccfjtto che, } 

, ^except, unless 
se noil che, ) * 

secondochr, according as 

oltrechc, besides that 

siccctme, -v 

come, \ as 

comech'^, ) 

nosostante che, notwithstanding 

conciosiacosacchP, that being the case, providing 

caso che, in case that 

guando,} . 

, cii, m case 

dove, 3 ' 

sbiche, ) . . . 

„. , . >m order that 
ajfinche, 3 

comunque, however 

senzach^, unless, without 

finoatantoche, as long as 

per tema che, for fear 

clato che, ) , . , i ^ 

, Vsuppose that, ^ranted that 
»~ sopposto che,) ^^ ° 



XIII.] 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 



145 



CHAPTER XIII. 



Etymology of Interjections. 



72. The nature of these words has been explained under 
Paragraph 3. I mention Interjections here, again, only for 
the sake of form. There are very few of them in any lan- 
guage ; and their use is purely a matter of practice. The In- 
terjections, in Italian, are the following, with, perhaps, a few 
more in addition to these. 



ha ! ha ! 

orsii ! come ! 

o/o! 

oh! oh! 

old. ! heigh ! 

via, via ! pshaw ! 



ahi ! alas ! 
oinie ! 
oime lasso ! 
oibb ! fie ! 
eh! eh! 
deh ! alas ! 



I 



alas! 



l-^G OP IKCRBABE AND [Chap. 



CHA'PTER XIV. 



Of Increase and Diminution in Words. 



73. Mavy "worde, in Itnlian, are subject 'to mi increase or 
diminution in the number of their letters, which some .gramma- 
rians call increment and retrenchment. In paragraph 4, I have 
noticed the circumstance of diminution in words ; and to this 
a large portion of the words throughout the language are sub- 
ject. We will first notice those which are capable of increase. 
These are not so numerous. 

74. INCREASE IN WORDS.— The preposition a, to. is 
very commonly increased to ad, when it stands immediately 
before a word beginning with a vowel. So with the preposi- 
tion suy upon, which may be increased to sur. So with the 
conjimctions e, end, o, or, or either, and ne, nor, or neither, 
which may be increased to ed, od, and ned -, and, in old au- 
thors, we sometimes find the conjunction e written et. The 
words se, if, and che, that, were formerly sometimes written 
sed and ched ; but these two latter forms are very old, and 
quite out of use. The use of ned, instead of n^, is, also, out 
of fashion now-a-days. Tliese increasings in words arise for 
just the same reason as that for which we, in English, some- 
times use an instead of a ; that is, for the sake of harmony. 
It is only when the abovementioned little words come just be- 



XIV.] DIMINUTION IN WORDS. 147 

fore another %ord beginning with a vowel, that they are thus 
subject to take a consonant at their ends. For example, it is 
more harmonious to say, parlo ad un u6mo, I speak to a man ; 
suR Vila s^dia, upon a chair ; than, parlo a un n6mo ; su una 
sMia ; just as, in English, it sounds better to say an untoward 
ev^i, than to say A untoward event. Besides the above in- 
stiihcefe o'f increase at the ends, tTiere is one manner of increase 
af the beginnings, of words ; namely, that of prefixing an i to 
words which begin with an 5 having a consonant immediately 
after it, in cases where the preceding word terminates with a 
consonant. For example, instead of saying con studio, with 
study, the Italians may say, con istudio ; instead of i7i scdmhio, 
in exchange, in iscdmbio ; and so forth. The word stesso, same 
or self, is often spelled istesso ; as, l'istesso giorno, the same 
day; instead of lo stesso giorno ; l' istessa cosa, the same 
thing; instead of la stessa cosa. There is, as Signor Bar- 
BERi observes, no strict rule for this ; and the i may, in such 
cases, be either used or not, as taste may dictate. Personal 
Pronouns are sometimes joined to verbs, so as to make one 
word of two, (see Syntax Paragraph 42) ; and, when this is 
the case, there is an increase of one letter at the junction of 
the two words, if the verb have an accent on its final vowel, or 
be a monosyllable : as, io vedrollo, I shall see him (instead of 
io vedrb lo, or io lo vedrb) ,- where we see an additional / be- 
tween the vedrb and the lo. In many of the Adverbs or 
Conjunctions, also, there may be an increase of one letter, 
where two words are joined in one : as, vieppiii, much more; 
acciocche, in order that ; perciocche, because ; instead of vie 
pill, accib che, percib che. 

75. DIMINUTION IN WORDS.— Let it be observed 
that, in speaking, here, of diminution or retrenchment in words, 
I mean, particularly, that shortening to which words are sub- 
ject independently of the Apostrophe. The use of the Apos- 
trophe has been already noticed at Paragraph 13. Here I 
have to show how words may be curtailed without using any 
mark of elision at aU. The curtailing of words in their end- 
ings is a thing of constant occurence, in Italian. It is not 
only allowed to the poets, but to all writers, and to people in 

XT O 



148 



OP INCREASE AND 

« 



[Chap. 



common conversation ; and it is, as must be evident, at once a 
great advantage in point of strength, and a great beauty in the 
language. 

76. It is a general rule, that all words ending in le, lo, mo, 
ne, no, re, or ro, may be shortened by the omitting of their final 
vowel. If the /, m, n, or r, which precedes the final vowel, 
be double y then, generally speaking, the retrenchment is not 
allowable. The far greater part of the words which may be 
curtailed in their endings are, Nouns, Adjectives, and some 
parts of the Verbs. The following are a few examples of the 
Nouns and Adjectives. 



Nouns and Adjectives in le and lo. 



abitudle, habitual, may be written ahitual 


amdbile, amiable. 


amdbil 


ciUo, heaven, .... 


ciil 


crudcle, cruel, .... 


crudil 


fiicxle, easy, .... 


facil 


gaitile, genteel. 


ginta 


guanriale, a pillow . 


guancifil 


inviolabile, InTiolable, 


invioldhil 


laudevole, laudable, . 


laudciol 


tnele, honey, .... 


mel 


tnonile, a necklace, . 


monil 


naturdle, natural. 


tiaturdl 


onorivole, honourable, 


onorcvol 


paras6le, a parasol, . 


jiaras6l 


•pilo, the skin, . 


pel 


regale, royal, 


regdl 


sale, salt, 


sal 


s6le, the sun, . . 


s6l 


s6lo, alone 


s6l 


stde, a style, 


stU 


venule, xcTaal, 


vendl 



Nouns and Adjectives in ne and no. 

abolizibne, abobtion, may be written, abolizidn 

bine, well, or good, .... ben 

bitino, good, budn 

crlne, the hair of the head, '. . crin 

dem6ne, a demon, . . . dcmdn 

emendaziSne, amendment, . . emcndaziSn 

falcdne, a hawk, .... falcon 

garzdne, a boy garzdn 

injinzidne, a fiction, . . . injinzidn 

lancidne, a great lance, . . lancidn 

mdno, a hand, .... man 

numine, a deity, . . . numin 



XIV.] 



DIMINUTION IN WORDS. 



149 



drdine, an order, '. 


6rdin 


pane, bread, .... 


, pun 


pellcgrtno, foreign. 


pellegrln 


quadrhne, a large picture . 


quadrdn 


ragidne, a reason, . 


ragiSn 


ribdldSne, grossly wicked . 


ribaldin 


Saracino, Saracin, 


Saracin 


Toscano, Tuscan, . 


Toscdn 


torcidne, distortion. 


torciin 


venhio poison. 


venen 


visi6iie, a vision, . 


visiSn 


vordgine, a whirlpool, . 


vordgin 


Kapp6ne, a mattock. 


zdpp6n 



Nouns and Adjectives in re and ro. 

am6re, love, may be written, amdr 
benefatt6re, a benefactor . - ^"^nefatthr 
cudre, a heart, . • • • <^u6r 
cavalierc, a noTSeman . . cavalier 
dolhre, grief, .... doUr 
edificat6re, a builder . . . edificatdr 
folgSre, a thunderbolt, . . folghr 
guerrliro, a warrior, . . . guerriir 
imperatdre, an emperor, . . imperator 
leggiiro, light, .... leggier 
maggidre, greater, . . . maggidr 
mdre, a sea, . . . . mdr 
mietitdre, a harvestman, . . mietitSr 
misero, miserable, . . . miser 
narrlitore, a narrator, . . narratSr 
oratbre, an orator, . ... oratdr 
peggidre, worse, . . . peggidr 

pensii.ro, a thought, . . . pensier 
piacere, pleasure, . . . piacer 
quartiere, a quarter, . . . quartier 
recatbre, a bringer, . . . recutSr 
sapere, knowledge, . . . saper 
sentiiro, a path, . , . sentiir 

siitiro, a satyr, .... sdtir 
sopbre, sleep, .... sopbr 
timbre, fear, . ' . . . timbr 

vincitbre, a conqueror, . . vincitbr 
zappatbre, a digger, . . . zappatbr 



77. The inflections of the Verbs that may be diminished 
are, for the most part, the same as what will be found in 
the following examples. The following examples are different 
changes of the verb amdre, to love. In order to kno<^ to 
what Mode, Time, or Person, these belong, look back at the 
conjugation of amdre, in page . We may judge, by the 
following, of what almost all the verbs are subject to. 



150 OP INCREASE AND [Cfagp. 

amt'irc, to love, ni*y be written amdr 



mnl/imn, wo love, 


. am lam 




iiinuno, they love, 


. ft f nan 




amavUmo, wo loved, . 


. am/tvam 




tim/itano, they loved, 


. am/ivan 




fitnurono, tht-y lo\cd, 


. amaron, anUiro, 


or am^'ir 


amcrimo, we flball love, . 


. amerim 




fimcrunno, they shall love. 


. ameran 




amUinw, we may love, 


. amium 




amino, they may love. 


. itmin 




atn/i.fscro, they might love. 


. am&sxer 




amerhnmo, wc should love, 


. amercm 




ameribbero, they Bhotildlore, 


. ameribber 




am'iamo, let iia love. 


. amium 


. 


amino, let them love. 


. amin 





rlCTt ^^ ^s *^ ^^ observed, that the greater part of the 
inflections of the Tf^^B that may be shortened are, as in 
the above examples of the veTl? amdre, those ending in mo 
and no. Of the 3d Person plural in the r-^t ferfect of the 
Indicative we see that we may either omit only the final o, or 
the no, or the one, according to the above example of amdrono, 
which may be diminished to amaron, to amdro, or to amdr. 
We see, that where the m or n preceding the final c is double, 
the latter m or n may be omitted along with the final o ; as in 
the above examples, am«rdnno, and amer^mmoy which may be 
shortened co amerdn, and amer^. The verbs anddre, dare, 
faTBy stare, and av&e, have a double n before the final o in the 
3d Person plural of the Present of the Indicative : vdnno, they 
go, ddnno, they give, /anno, they make or do, stdnno, they 
stand, hdiino, they have ; and these may all be shortened to 
van, dan, fan, stan, han. We see, that there are two inflec- 
tions ending in ro, in which the final o may be omitted ; accord- 
ing to the above examples, amdssero and ameribbero, which 
may become amdsser and amerebber. — In all the Infinitives of 
Verbs the final e may, as observed in Paragraph 4, be omitted : 
for example, we may say amdr, crcder, scntir, av6r, esser, in- 
stead of amdre, credere, sentire, avere, essere ■ and when the 3d 
Person plural of the Past Perfect of the Indicative is so far 
diminished as to end in r, as when amdrono is spelled amdr, it 
is common to put an apostrophe over the r, in order to distin- 
guish this inflection of the verb from the Infinitive : thus, 
while the infinitive amdre, for example, may be spelled amdr, 
it is best to spell amar, when intended in the sense of amdrono. 



Xiyj] DIMINUTION IN WORDS. 151 

amdr\ These shortenings of the 3d Person plural in the 
Past Perfect are^ however, seldom met with, except in 
poetry. 

78. I have said> in paragraph 7 G, that when the I, m, n, or 
r, is double, the final vowel is not, generally, to be omitted. 
In many words, however, which end in llo, the final lo may 
be omitted;- as in uccello, bird, cappelio, h^t,/rat€llo, brother, 
andlOi ring, agn^Ilo, lamb, fanciullo^ child; which may be 
spelled uccel, capp4l,frat4l, anil, agnil, fcmciul* Buommattbi 
tells us, that in the words cor a7/o, coral, cristdllo, crystdl, bdllOf 
dance, fdllo, fault, and snello, nimble, the final lo should not, 
according to practice, be omitted. The word valle, a valley, 
may become val. The words bella, beautiful, and quello, that, 
may be spelled ^e/ and quel, excepting when they are followed 
by a word beginning with an s having a consonant immediately 
after it ; for, then, the final lo must always be preserved.-*- 
The plurals of b^llo, beautiful, qtiello, that, fraUllo, brother, 
cap4llo, the hair of one's head, and aug^llo, bird, are frequently 
spelled b4i, quel, fraUi, cap4i, augii, instead of billi,.quelli, 

fmUllit cap4lU, augSllL Observe, too, that b4llo and quello, 
when in the plural, are spelled b^gli and quegli, instead of belli 
B.nd qu4Ili, or b4i and quS, in cases where the noun to which 
they are prefixed begins either with a vowel or with an s hav- 
ing a consonant immediately after it : as, b4gli occhi, beautiful 
eyes, b4gli sp4cchi, beautiful mirrors, gu4gli udmini, those men, 
qu4gli sperim^nti, those experiments. 

The cases in which words ending in mmo or nno may be 
shortened occur frequently in the verbs ; as in the abovemen- 
tioned instances of amerdnno, ameremmo, vdnno, ddnno, fdnno, 
stdnno, hdnno. 

The only cases in which words having an r doubU before 
the final vowel can be shortened, are, those of the Infinitives 
of verbs ending in rre, of which there are but few ; and, when 
these are shortened, the latter r, as well as the final vowel, is 
omitted. For example, the Infinitives porre, to put, trarre, 
to draw, condurre, to conduct, torrc, to take away: these 
may be spelled par, trar, condur, tor. 

79. The word imo, a, or one, may, as before observed (see 
paragraph 34), be spelled un ; and all the numerical Adjectives 



152 OF INCREA8K AND [Chap. 

composed of una may drop the final vowel ; ai=i vent'uno, twenty- 
one, trenV uno, thirty-one, which may be spelled vent'un, trent' 
nn. In the pronouns, also, which are composed of uno, the 
final o may be omitted : as in alcuno, some one ; nessilno, niuno, 
or veritno, no one ; ciascuno, each, or every one ; ogniino, every 
one ; which may be spelled alciin, niun, verun, ciasciin, ogndn. 
But in uno, and these compounds of it, the final o must not 
be omitted when the following word begins with an s that has 
a consonant immediately after it. 

80. In words ending with the vowal a no shortening is ad- 
mitted, excepting in the case of the word ora, now, which may 
be spelled or. Words composed of ora may also drop the final 
a always ; as, allora, then, talora, sometimes, qualora, whenever, 
oynora, always, ancora, yet, alcundra, sometimes ; which may 
be spelled, allur, tal6r, qualdr, ogndr, anc6r, alcunor. The 
word su6ra, sister or nun, may, also, be spelled suor ; as, 
suor Anna, sister Anna. 

81. It is a rule, that the final o in the 1st Person singular 
of the Present of the Indicative Mode is never to be omitted. 
Tasso has written, " Amico hai vinto, io ti perdos, perdona," 
friend, thou hast conquered, I forgive thee, forgive thou. Here 
is perdon, instead of perddno, a libert)" that has been con- 
demned by all the grammarians that have noticed it. This 
liberty has, however, very seldom been taken. The only in- 
stance in which the o may be omitted in the abovementioned 
1st Person is that in the verb to be, wherein sdno, 1 am, may 
be, and is very commonly, spelled son ,- as, also, the same 
word w^hen it stands for they are, in the 3d Person plural. I 
am speaking, here, of the shortening which may take place 
withoit the use of the Apostrophe ; for, by using that 
mark,' the final o in the abovementioned 1st Person is very 
often omitted, and with perfect proprietv' ; as in these exam- 
ples of Petrarch : 

Non perch* io non m' avvegg' io, &c. | Not because I do not perceive. 

Clie dcbh' io far ? &c. | What ought 1 to do ? 

Amico, or t' am' io, &c. | Friend, now I love thee. 

Ni poss' io indovindr, &c. | Nor can I coujecture. 

in which we see avveggo, dehho, amo, and posso, contracted to 
avvegg', debb', am', poss'. 



XIV.] DIMINUTION IN WORDS. 153 

82. The word /ra7e, which means brother or friar, and is- 
generally used in the latter sense, may be shortened to fra ; 
SLSf/ra Pietro, friar Peter; instead oifrdte Pi^tro. The word 
santo, saint, may be spelled sanf or san : sunt' before a name 
beginning with a vowel, san before a name beginning with a 
consonant; as, Sant' Antonio, Saint Anthony, San Giovanni, 
Saint John. Tlie adjective grande is spelled gran, when it 
comes before a word beginning with a consonant ; as, gran cane, 
great dog ; instead of grande cdne. When the following word 
begins with a vowel, the e only is omitted, and an apostrophe 
is placed over the d ; as, grand' u6mo, great man. The word 
Signore, Sir, Master, Mr., Lord, or Gentleman, frequently 
drops the final e, particularly when followed by a pronoun, or 
by the proper name or title of dignity of the person to whom 
it is applied ; as, il Signor mio, my lord, or master ; Signor 
Tomaso, Mr. Thomas ; il Signor Arcivhcovo, the Lord Arch- 
bishop. The word verso, towards, is sometimes spelled ver. 
The plural of the word quale may be spelled quai, instead of 
quali. The word u6mo, man, may be spelled u6m ; but this is 
the only instance, excepting the inflections of verbs, in which 
words ending in mo may drop the final o. 

■83. It now and then occurs, particularly in the writings of 
the poets, that one or more letters are omitted when two 
words are joined together ; as, fostu, wast thou, instead of 
fosti tu, 

84. Under paragraph 13, I have given examples of th.e Apos- 
trophe, as used to denote the curtailing of words both at the 
beginnings and at the ends of them. It would be almost use- 
less to take up much room here, by giving further examples of 
the employment of the Apostrophe. There are a few instances, 
however, which I will mention, in which words may be made 
to drop several of their letters by the employment of this 
mark. Vo' stands for v6glio, I will ; vuo for vuole, he will : 
me' for m^glio, better ; ve' for vMi, sll ; te' for timi, hold ; to' 
for tdgli, take ; ma' for mdli, evils ; he' for hH or belli, the 
plural of bello, beautiful ; que' for quel or quelli, the plural of 
quello, that; frate iorfratei or /rate Hi, the plural of frai^llo, 
brother ; qua for qudi or qudli, the plural of quale, which ; po' 
for poco, a little ; ta for tdi or tali, the plural of tale, such 

H 5 



154 OF INCREABE AND DIMINUTION IN WORDS. [Chap. 

cota' for cotdi or cotdli, the plural of cotdle, such ; fe' for fede, 
faith; m' for cut, whom or which; c' or ch' for che, who, 
which, or whom. The Apostrophe is a most powerful agent 
with the Italian poets. They seem, and particularly the older 
writers, to have done with their language, as far as the use of 
this mark could affect it, pretty nearly whatever they pleased. 
Dantk and Petrarch use the Apostrophe at every turn. 



XV.] OF SYNTAX IN- GENERAL. 155, 



CHAPTER XV. 



Of Syntax in General. 

85. The term Syntax is a compound of two Greek words, 
which mean the same as our two words with, and method or 
order ; and Syntax, accordingly, is that part of grammar which 
relates to the employment of words in sentences, that is, it 
teaches us how to use words properly in conjunction with one 
another. Syntax is sometimes called Construction, meaning the 
puttnig of ivords together. In Syntax there are two main points 
to be attended to ; they are called Concord or Agreement, and 
Government. The Verb must agree, in Nimiber and in Person, 
with the Noun or Pronoun : the Adjective must agree, in Gen- 
der and in Number, with the Noun or Pronoun : Conjunctions 
govern the Modes of Verbs ; and Verbs, again, govern the 
Cases of Nouns and Pronouns. Then, the rules of Syntax 
tell us, in many cases, when a word should be used, and when 
it should be omitted, besides the mere changes in form that the 
Parts of Speech should undergo in what relates to Agreement 
and Government. I have endeavoured to consider the four 
Branches of Grammar as much separately from each other as 
possible. In my Etymology there is, to be sure, something of 
what properly belongs to Syntax : such are the rules for the 
agreement between Articles and Nouns, at Paragraph 29. Bat, 
this was a matter, the consideration of which could not so well be 
deferred. Syntax is by far the most important Branch, and the 
one which requu'es the most attention of the learner. The 
other Branches, Orthography, Prosody, and Etymology, do each 
of them, and especially the latter, require a good deal of at- 
tention ; but, these three, all put together, are of nothing hke 
go much importance as Syntax alone. 



166 SYNTAX [Chap 



CHAPTER XVI. 



Syntax of Articles. 



86. By looking- back to Paragraph 18, the reader will see 
that there are in Italian, as in English, two sorts of Articles ; 
iiamely, the Definite Article and the Indefinite Article ; the 
former being expressed, in Italian, by one of the words il, lo, la, 
and the latter by one of the words uno, un, una, un\ In the 
Et}Tiiology of Nouns, Paragraph 29, I have shown all the 
changes in form that the Definite Article undergoes to express 
gender and number, and how it is joined with prepositions, 
and I have given rules for when we are to use il, lo, or la ; and, 
as relates to the indefinite article, when we are to use uno or un, una 
or un. In the Svntax of this part of speech we have to con- 
sider, in comparing the two languages, when the article mayor 
must be employed in sentences, and when it may or must no t 
be so employed. And, first, 

0/ the Definite Article. 

87. The Definite Article is generally used in Italian in cases 
where it is used in English; but, in a great many cases where 
we, in English, cannot employ it, the Italians must do so ; so 
that this part of speech is of more consequence, or, at least, of 



XVI.] OP ARTICLES. 157 

more frequent use, in the Italian, than it is in our language. 
The Italians say, datemi il vino che avete jwrtato, give me the 
wine that you have brought ; dove e il cavallo che hanno com- 
prato ? where is the horse that they have bought ? Here the 
Italian and the EngUsh are exactly alike. The Definite Arti- 
cle is equally necessary in both languages, to define, or deter- 
mine the particular wine, that is, the wine that has been brought, 
and the particular horse, that is, the horse that hasbeen bought. 
But the two languages do not, as respects this Part of Speech, 
continue in such perfect unison with each other throughout, as 
we shall see immediately. 

88. Generally speaking the Definite Article is not employed, 
in Italian, any more than it is in English, before the proper 
names of persons. It is so used, however, in some cases, 
where the name is that of some celebrated author ; and the 
Italians would say ; ho letto il Petrarca, I have read Petrarch ; 
le opere del Petrarca^ the works of Petrarch ; il Tasso mi 
place molto, Tasso pleases me much ; la poesia del Tasso, the 
poetry of Tasso ; il Boccaccio k un autore molto stimato, Boc- 
caccio is an author much esteemed ; le novelle del Boccaccio 
sono piene di spirito, the novels of Boccaccio are full of wit. 
Tasso, speaking of Correggio the painter, says, "Del Cor- 
reggio lo stil piiro e sovrano," the pure and majestic style of 
Correggio. This use of the Article is not very common, and 
w^e find it used only before the names of some ver}^ celebrated 
persons. We find the Article thus employed before the names 
of women more frequently than before those of men ; writers 
often put the Article before the names of their female charac- 
ters or heroines. We read, for instance, in Boccaccio's Deca- 
merone. La Fiammetta, Fiammetta, La Lauretta, Lauretta. 
What is meaned in these cases is, most likely, il po4ta Pe- 
trarca, the poet Petrarch, il potta Tasso, the poet Tasso, 27 no- 
vellatore Boccaccio, tlie novelist Boccaccio, z7 pittor Correggio, 
the painter Correggio, la donna Fiammetta, the lady Fiam- 
metta ; and so forth. . 

89. When an Adjective is added to the proper name of a 
person, either before the name or after it, to express some- 
thing on account of which the person is iiiglily distinguished, 
then, as in English, the Article is employed with the Adjective. 



158 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



This is the case, also, with the proper names of some places; 
ae in the following examples : 



il Sommo Giovo 
Alfredo il Grande 
Lucrezia la Caxta 
Elena la Bella 
la Dotta Atcne 
Venczia la Ricca 



the High Jove 
Alfred the Great 
Lucretia the Chaste 
Helen the Fair 
the learned Athens 
Venice the Rich 



90. With the Adjectives of Numerical Order the article is, 
in general, employed in the same manner as it is in Eng- 
lish; as : 



io Bono il prima 
egli era il secdndo 
questa i la terza volta 



1 am the first 
he was the second 
this is the third time 



But if any of these Adjectives immediately follow a proper 
name, as in the case of the names of kings, princes, popes, 
&c., then the Article, which we use in English, must be 
omitted in Italian ; as : 



Georgio Tcno 
Carlo Primo 
Luigi Decimo ottavo 
Leo Decimo 



George the Third 
Charles the First 
Louis the Eighteenth 
Leo the Tenth 



91. When a proper name comes after the titles of king, 
queen, prince, Mister, Mistress, the Itahans use the article; 
as: 



il Re Giorgio 
la Regina Elisabetta 
il principe Enrico 
il Signor Brown 
la Signora White 



King George 
Queen Elizabeth 
Prince Henry 
Mr. Brown 
Mrs. White 



The title of Pope may either take the Article before it, or not ; 
and the Itahans say. Papa Leo, Pope Leo, or il Papa Leo. — 
Though I have said, that the titles king, queen, Bndprince, require 
the Article before them, as in the above examples, these titles do 
not so require it in Itahan, any more than in English, when 
followed by the names of the country governed by the king, 
queen, or princt} as: 



XVI.] 



OF ARTICLES. 



159 



Laigi, re di Prancia 

Elisabetta, reg/wrt d' lughiltena 

Leopoldo, princfpe di Bo^fiaia 



Louis, king of Francd 
Elizabeth, queen of England 
Leopold, prince of Bohemia 



And sometimes, even when the country is not mentioned, 
the article is omitted. So Ariosto says. Re Carlo Magno, 
king Charlemagne, Re Mandricardo, king Mandricard, Re 
Pipino, king Pipin ; instead of il Re Carlo, il Re Mandricardo, 
il Re Pipino. But the omission of the article, in such casds,' 
is a liberty which only the poets take. Some other words of 
title, also, have, in Italian, contrary to our language, the 
Article before them; as, Cardinale, Cardinal, Arciv^scffvt), 
Archbishop. Thus we must say, il Cardinale Bentivoglio, C^- 
dinal Bentivoglio, and not Cardinale Bentivoglio. Wheft We 
are addressing ourselves to persons, and give them the titk Of 
Signore, or Signora, then the article is omitted : as, dove dridnt^t 
Signor Brown ? where are you going, Mr. Brown ? eoMe state, 
Signora White ? how do you do, Mrs. "White ? 

92. The names of the four quarters of the globe require the 
Article before them : /' Europa, Europe ; V Asia, Asia ; f 
Africa, Africa ; V America, America. Some names of coun- 
tries , provinces, Hvers, tovms, and mountains, require the Article, 
and some do not. The Article is seldom used with the names 
of towns. It would be impossible to give any -rule as to 
when the article is, and when it is not, to be used, before 
these proper names of countries, provinces, &c. It seems 
to be merely a matter of custom, independent of all grafii- 
matical rules, and to be learned only by practice. Tire 
Itahans say, la Francia, France, I' Italia, Italy, la ToseaiM, 
Tuscany, il Parnasso, Parnassus, il Sinai, Sinai. lii oiir fe^* 
guage the article is seldom used before the names of coulitties 
and provinces. Then, while we should not say, the P'ari^sife 
and the Sinai, we should say, with the Italians, le Alpi, the 
Alps, le Pirenei, the Pyrennees, gli Apennini, the Apennine^^ 
We agree with the Italians, again, as to the names of rivers : 
as, il Tamigi, the Thames, il Tevere, the Tiber, V Arno, the 
Amo. It would seem that, in using the Article, Ss iii tfeS'Sfe 
examples, there is always something left to be und6f ^f'tfd^ : 
thus, when we say the Thames, we ineail the fivef "whicl^ i§ 



160 SYNTAX [Chap. 

called Thames ; and it is quite as reasonable for the Italians to 
say la Toscana, il Parnasso, &c., meaning, according to the 
same way of explaining it, la provincia che si chiama Toscana, 
il montc che si chiama Varnasso ; the province which is 
called Tuscany, the mountain which is called Parmussus ; and 
80 on. 

93. It must be observed, that it is in the Nominative Case, 
especially, that the Article is allowed before proper names of 
the kind just mentioned ; and that, though it has originally 
b.een but a matter of caprice, and is now a matter of custom, 
to use or to omit the article before the noun in the Nomina- 
tive, yet, when the noun is in other cases, and is preceded by 
prepositions, there is something of rule to guide us. Thus, 
in the following examples, the article is used along with pre- 
positions : 



Le rive dell* Amo. 
La gloria r/ell' Inghilterra. 
Le citia rfc/r Italia. 
La liberta rcstituita alia FraDcia. 
Le guerre che sono seguitc ncll' 
America. 



The banks of the Amo. 
The glory of England. 
The towns of Italy. 
The liberty restored to France. 
The wars that have occurred in 
America. 



Then, again, the prepositions without the article : 



II val d' Amo. 
I cavalli d' Inghilterra. 
Venire d' Italia. 
Andare in Francia. 
Stare in America. 



The vale of Amo. 
The horses of England. 
To come from Italy. 
To go to France. 
To stay in America. 



The rule seems to be this : that, whenever we use the pro- 
per name adjectively, as something by which to characterize or 
distinguish something else ; or, as relates to countries in parti- 
cular, whenever we are speaking of going to, coming from, 
passing bj/, or dwelling in, a country ; in all such cases, the 
Article is to be omitted. In the case of the proper name 
Amo, wherein we, as weU as the Italians, use the Article, we 
see that, in English, there is just the same distinction made as 
in Italian : the banks of the Arno, the vale of Arno. In 
the first instance, the Arno is mentioned as having the banks 
belonging to it; in the second, as being merely a name which 
characterizes or distinguishes a vale. The first we may am- 
plify thus, le rive che sono la propri'etcL delV Arno, the banks 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 161 

which are the property of the Arno ; and the second in this 
way, la valle alia quale si del ilnome d' Arno, the vale to which is 
given the name of Arno. So with the examples, la gloria. 
deir Ingliilterra, i cavalli d' Inghilterra. In the first of these, 
the noun Inghilterra is not used merely adjectively to describe 
the kind of the glory : we mean, the glory which belongs to, 
or which is the property of, England; while, in the latter ex- 
ample, the noun is used only in an Adjective sense ; and we 
mean, by cavalli d' Inghilterra, horses of English breed, or the 
same as if we were to use the Adjective itself, cavalli Inglesi, 
English horses. Then, there are the examples, le cittd dell' 
Italia, la libertci restituita alla Francia, le guerre che sono se- 
guite nell' America, which are contrasted with the other 
three, venire d' Italia, anddre in Francia, stare in Ame- 
rica. Now, we must observe, that, in such cases as 
these, the article is always used along with the prepo- 
sition, if, before the preposition, there be words expressing 
something which affects in some way or othtjr, or which has 
reference to, the whole extent of the ccuntry. In sueak- 
ing here of the cities, the liberty, the wars, we mean through- 
out, or in reference to the whole country of Italy, France, 
America. But, if we speak of the country merely as a 
place to go to, to come from, to pass through, to dwell 
in, then no article is used, the country being regarded in 
a more confined sense, that is, as being rather a spot 
in, or a part of the universe than as a ivhole of itself. 
The only grammar in which I find this matter at all ex- 
plained, is the French work of Signor Barberi. But the ex- 
planation he gives us is by no means satisfactory, though it is 
correct as far as it goes. He neglects, particularly, to notice 
the distinction that there is to be made in using the preposition 
di, with or without the article, as in the foregoing examples ©f 
dell' Arno, delV Inghilterra, d' Arno, d' Inghilterra. And, in 
further illustration of this point, I may notice, here, that the 
foregoing example," the towns of Italy," might be, in Italian, 
either le citta dell' Italia, or le citta d' Italia. In the latter 
manner, the preposition being used without the article, the 
Italia would have a sense merely adjective, like that of Inghil- 
terra, in the example, I cavalli d' Inghilterra ; that is, the citta 



1«2 SYNTAX [Chap. 

d* Italia would mean the same as cittil Ital'ume, Italian towns. 
But this matter, the use of the names of countries, &c. ad- 
jectively, is one which I shall have to notice again particularly. 
See Paragraph 100. As, however, we have here to do with 
Articles, I will give a few more examples of the article used 
or omitted before the names of countries. Observe the 
following : 



Fanno oggid) una deplorabile 
fude Ic piagbe dclla Francia, &c. 

Bbn. L. 



To this day the wounds of France give 
a deplorable proof. 



Quasi a vista del canal d' Inphilterra. I Almost in sight of the channel of Eng- 

BsN. L. land. 



Qnesto Giugno di Francia non S quasi 
altro che un' Aprile d' Italia. 

Ben. L. 



This June of France is hardly any 
more than an April of Italy. 



Era r Agostlno di Francia. Ben. L. | He waa the Augustine of France. 
Non ndiri pi^ lo strepito dell' armi He will no longer hear the din of the 



d' Europa. Ben. L 



arms of Europe. 



Ayerlo a Teder succedere nn giomo ] To have to see him one day succeed to 
alia corona d' Inghilterra. Ben. L. | the crown of England. 

Gran torto fareste alia Francia, ed dlV I Great injury would you do to France. 
Italia. pr-.-Ti --,.. 



.».^.^* u« 



I and to Italy. 



Cedano tutti gli altri paesi alia I Let aU other countriej5 cede to France. 
Francia, &c. Bbn. L. | 

Una pace la pii desiderable per /a I A peace, the most desirable for France. 
Francia. Ben. L. | 

Mi dispiacque di non ritomar in Italia I 1 was sorry not to return to Italy by 
per Francia. Ben. L. I France. 

These examples are perfectly consonant with the rule I have 
laid down. As relates to the article omitted when the prepo- 
sition di is used, the examples above make good what I have 
said before. In the examples, del Canal d' Inghilterra, Giugno 
DI Francia, Aprile d' Italia, V Agostino di Francia, dell' armi 
d' Europa, alia corona d' Inghilterra ; here the names of Ing- 
hilterra, Francia, Italia, and Europa, are used in an Adjective 
sense, characterizing the canal, Giugno, Aprile, Agostino, armi, 
corona ; and, properly to translate the phrases, it should be, of 
the English Channel, French June, Italian April, the French 
Augustin, of the European arms, to the English crown. 

94. In using names common to the whole kinds of things, 
in a general sense, the article, which we do not use in 
such cases in English, must be employed in Itahan, For 
example: 



XYW 



OP AI^TJCLIS. 



IC3 



II vino si vende a gran pr^zzo^ 
Le api colgono il mele daijiori. 



Wine, sell?) at a great price. 
Bees gather honey from flowers. 



In these examples there is no particular wine, bees, honey, 
flowers, intended to be pointed oyt ; and it would not convey 
ovir meaning so distinctly in English, nor, indeed, could it be 
correct, to say, the wine sell& at a great price, the bees gathqr 
the honey from the flowers, unless we intended to express a 
sense of identity, or to particularize, in some way, the wine, 
b§es, honey, flowers. Let us take another example ; 



Le aj/i c61go^o i^ mele dal sugo dei 
, flori. 



Bees gatkei honey froia, tite juice. <ff 
flowers. 



Now here the article is necessary before the aoito Juic^y in 
English as well as in Italian; because, we mean. j9«r^k?w/a*^ 
to describe the juice as being that which is of flowers. We 
might ^^^' vath the Italians, according to the examples given 
in Paragraph 87, the wine that you have broiight, il vim ehe 
avete jportato J the horse that they have bought, ii, cavallo eke 
haraiO eOuipratG. But, then, in such instances, it is. meancd to 
particularize the thing spoken of ; for, here, the wine is men* 
tioned as that wine which you have brought, and the horse as 
that horse which they have bought. Tlie following is a strik- 
ing example of the extent to which the article may be em- 
ployed in Itahan : 



Lascia, lascia le lagrime e i sospiri, 
S* acquista far della taa dovina vuoi. 

Gda. p. F. 



Leave off, leave off tears and sighs, if 
thou wishest to obtain thy mistress. 



Here, if the article were employed in English, it would 
quite alter the sense. "Leave of^ the tears and the sighs," 
would mean some particular tears and sighs ; while, in Italian, 
tears and sighs are spoken of in this example in a general sense, 
as signs of lamentation. 

95. In speaking of things of which there is but one, or a 
sinsrle collection of the kind, in existence, we sometimes use 
the article, and the Italians do ^o in all cases. Thus : la terra, 
the earth, il mare, the sea, il sole, the sun, la luna, the moon, 
le stelle, the stars, il mondo, the world, V universo, the universe, 
il vento, the wind, /' orizzonte, the horizon ; here we see the 



1G4 SYNTAX [Chap. 

English and the Italian are alike. But the Italians say, also, 
la natura, nature, // cirlo, heaven, il paradiso, paradise, /' in- 
ferno, hell. Tlie names of the elements ; those of metals, and 
of the 6^\^iiTQn\. productions of the earth, which it would be un- 
necessary to enumerate in full, here ; these require the article 
in Italian, while, in English, they do not so generally. The 
Italians say, il/uoco, fire, /' acqua^ water, /' oro, gold, V ar- 
g^nto, silver, /' orzo, barley, la s^gala, lye, il grano, wheat, la 
pastura,Y>Sisture, il pusto, food, il lumpo or tV balffno, lightning, 
il tudno, thunder, la pidggia, rain, la irugidda, dew, la pdlvere, 
dust. We, in Enghsh, can say : the wheat, barley, and rye, 
are fine ; meaning, particularly, the wheat, &c., of this 
year ; and we say, also ; the dew falls in the evening ; the 
dust is disagreeable ; meaning dew and dust in general ; 
though we could not say, the water is useful to man, the silver 
is a bright metal, meaning, water and silver in general. 
These are niceties of difference, and merelv matters of 
practice ; and the main difference between the two languages, 
ijp; such cases, is, that while we, in some instances, may either 
use or omit the Article, the Italians must always use it ; un- 
less, indeed, it be omitted in the way of license with the poets. 
When prepositions are used before the nouns terra, mare, cielo, 
paradiso, inferno, particularly the prepositions di, a, in, and 
per, the article is frequently omitted in Italian. The Ita- 
lians say, esser in cielo, to be in heaven, esser jn paradiso, 
to be in paradise, esser in inferno, to be in hell, venir di d^lo, 
to come from heaven, andare per mare e per terra, to go by 
sea and by land, mettere a mare, to put to sea, un vidggio per 
mare, a voyage by sea, &;c. Such omissions of the articles are 
all similar to those which I have mentioned in Paragraph 193, 
as relating to the names of countries, provinces, &c. 

96. We frequently make use of the article before a name 
which is descriptive of a whole class or kind of persons or 
things : the Italians do the same ; as, 



The reaper cuts the com. 

The ploughman ^orks the land. 

TTie beech is a spacious tree. 

The rose is a very beautiful flower- 

The dog is faithful to his master. 



II mietitire sega il grano. 
L' aratort lavora la terra. 
II fdggio e un dlbero spaziiSso. 
La rosa e un fiore bellissimo. 
II cane e fedele al suo ma«istro. 



The horse is a strong animal. I II cavallo «i un animal forte. 

But we cannot, in English, employ the article in the 



XVI.] 



OP ARTICLES. 



165 



plural number, in such cases, without entirely changing the 
sense of the phrase. To say, the reapers cut the corn, the 
ploughmen work the land, &;c., would, unless we mean to speak 
of some particular individual reapers, ploughmen, &c., be not 
strictly good English. Yet the force of custom here is such, 
that we may say, the corn, the land, as in the two first of the 
above examples, although we be speaking only of com and land 
in general, and not of some particular com or land ; and, we 
might say, in the plural, the reapers cut the com, the ploughmen 
work the land, having reference to the whole of the individuals 
of the classes of persons so called, and not to some particular 
individuals. We cannot, however, foUow this up, throughout 
our language ; and it would not do to say, the horses are strong 
animals, speaking of the whole race of those animals in general. 
The main difference to be observed here, again, is, that while 
it is sometimes optional with us, in such cases, to use or to 
omit the article, in ItaHan it is a strict mle that the article 
must be used. 



Reapers cut the com. 
Ploughmen work the land. 
Beeches are spacious trees. 
Roses are very beautiful flowers. 
Dogs are faithful to their masters. 
Horses are strong animals. 



/ mietit&ri s^gano il grano. 
Gli aratdrl lavorano la terra. 
Ifaggi sono dlberi spaziosi. 
Le rose sono fiori bellissimi. 
/ cani sono fedeli ai lor maestri. 
/ cavalli sono animili forti. 



The article, in the plural, is here indispensible in Italian : to 
say, mietitor segano il grdno, &c., would be even a greater 
outrage to ItaHan grammar than it would be to the Enghsh 
to say, the horses are strong animals. In the very first words 
of Boccaccio's Proem to his Decamerone, we find an example 
very much to the point : 

Umana cosa i aver compassione It is a humane thing (or, a thing 

degli afflitti. natural to man) to have compassion for 
the afflicted. 

Here the Adjective, affiitti, stands for afflicted persons in 
general; and this use of the Adjective, in the plural number, is 
as common in the ItaHan as in our own language. So we may 
say, in both languages, i virtuosi, the virtuous, gl' ingordt, the 
rapacious, i caitivi, the wicked, and so forth ; meaning in both 
languages, virtnovis persons, or men, in general, rapacious j3«-- 



1 (56 SYNTAX [Chap. 

sSHs, or inc7i, in geiiiernl, wicked persons, or men, in general; 
that is to say, the xrhoJe class of the persons, or men, which are 
of either description. When the whole class is thus expressed 
by an Adjective, we roust invariably use the article in both 
languages ; but, when the whole class is expressed by the 
Noun descriptive of it, irithout the Adjective, then in English, 
we need not employ the Article ; as is seen in the examples of 
reapers ixnd ploughmen. Then, again, the Noun and the Adjec- 
tive are, sometimes, in similar cases, employed in both 
languages ; for, we may say, taking the example of Boccaccio 
again, to have compassion for afflicted men. But here, as re- 
lates to the Article, the two languages disagree ; for here the 
Italians must employ the Article, while we cannot do so : 
Boccaccio might have said, aver compassione degU uomini 
afflitti, that is, literally, to have compassion for the afflicted 
vien. But we could not say this, unless we had some par- 
ticular men in our eye. 

97. The Italians have the Article before the nouns man and 
woman y both in the singular and plural numbers, not only in 
speaking of particular individuals, but also when they use 
these nouns in the general sense of mankind and womankind ; as : 



Man is a rational animal. 
H'oman wa« created after mAn. 
Men arc ambitions. 
Women are fair. 



Z/' uomo ^ tin animal ragion^vole. 
JLa donna fu cre^ta dopo 1* uomo. 
Gil itomini sono ambizi6si. 
Le donne sorio belle. 

.'.■■■;.*, r,\ 

S^8. Before tlbe names of the various attributes of mankind, 
siich as virtue, vice, life, death ; and before the names of arts 
and scieiiceSf and before the names signif\'ing the professions, 
employments, or orders of persons, the Italian requires the 
Article : la virHl, virtue, il vizio, vice, la vita, life, la morte, 
death, la temperanza, temperance, la sincerity, sincerity, V odio, 
hatred, la curiositk, curiosity, la verity, truth, V errore, error, 
V industria, indu^tr}^ la saviezza, wisdom, la generositii, 
generosity, i? coraggio, courage, V arte, art, la sintdssi, syntax, 
la grammdtica, graminar, T arimmetica, arithmetick, la 
teblogla, theology, il negozio, trade, la giierra, war ; i preti, 
priests, gli a^^bcdti, lawyers, i grammatici, grammarians, 
i solddti, i^oldiers, i politici, politicians; and so forth. The 



• 



XVL] OF ARTICLES. PS? 

poets take the liberty of omitting the article in many cases 
where it would generally be indispensible in prose or con- 
versation. For example : 



Sta liberalitd straccidta ^ rotta. 

Mac. R. 



Liberality remains ruined and de- 
feated. 



Oxio e neces^sitd — us^ra efra-ide. I Sloth and want— usury and fraud. 

Mac. R. , 



Potinza, onor, riccMzza, e'sanit&.te, 
Servitil, inf&mia,morbo, e povertdte. 

Mac. R. 

S' io miro il tuo bel viso, 
Ambre 4 un paradise, &c. 

GcA. P. F. 

Riguarda Attune, dove ingratitiido 
Pose il BUD nido, &c. 

Mac. E.' 



Power, honour, riches, and health, 
slavery, infamy, disease, and poverty. 

If I look at thy beautiful face, love is a 

paradise. 



Look at Athens, where ingratitude 
made its nest. 



Here, the article should, strictly speaking, be employed, in 
Italian, with the nouns liberalitd,, ozio^ necessith, Msiira, fraude, 
potenza, onor, ricchezza, sanitate, serviiu, infdmia, morbo, 
povertdte, amdre, ingratitudo. When, however, we 'are as- 
cribing the possession of virtues or vices, or characteristic 
qualities to persons or things, we must omit the article, in 
Italian. ThuS;, we must not say, ella ha la prud4nza, she has 
prudence ; egli ha la pazi^nza, he has patience ; but, ella ha 
prndSnza, egli ha pazienza. 

.Before the nouns cold, heat, hunger, thirsty the article is 
used : ilfreddo, cold, or the cold, il caldo, heat, or the heat, 
la fame, hunger, la sete, thirst. And in speaking of being cold, 
ho% hungry, thirsty, the Italians use the verb to have, omitting 
the article: aver freddo, to have cold; aver caldo, to have 
heat ; aver fame, to have hunger ; aver sete, to have thirst. 
And here I may notice that, in speaking of cold or heat as 
respects the weather, they use the verb to make, omitting the 
article: fa freddo, it makes cold; fa caldo, it makes hot. 

99. In order to express an indefinite quantity of a thing, or 
an indefinite number of things, the ItaUans make use of the 
article with the preposition di. The article, and the pre- 
position joined with it, in this case, are employed to express 
nothing more or less than what we mean by the word some. 
In many instances, it is optional with us to use the word some. 



168 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



or to omit it. Tims, we say, give me bread, or, give me 
some bread ; give me booh, or, give me sojne books, so the Ita- 
lians say, datcmi patie, give me bread, or, datemi del pane, 
give me some bread ; datcmi libri, give me books, or datemi 
(lei libri, give me some books. That is, literally del pane, of 
the bread, del libri, of the books. In Dante's Infierno, the 
Count Ugolint) is made to say, 



i mici figliui^li, 

Ch' cran con meco, c domandar del 

pane. 



. . . my sons, who were with me, and 
asked for some bread. 



Whenever we wish to express the sense of the word some, then 
we must use the article with the preposition. Tlie articles 
joined with the preposition di, are, as we have seen under 
Paragraph 1 8, dell, dello, della, in the singular number ; and, 
dei, or, d', degli, delle, in the plural. But, if we do not wish 
to express any thing at all, in reference to quantity or number, 
then the article is to be omitted. So, we must say, 



V6glio deW acqua. 
Volute del vino T 
Non v6glio acqua. 
Non volete lino ? 



I wish for some water. 
Do you wish for some nine f 
I do not wish for water. 
Do not you wish for wine ? 



The use of the Definite Article here is, let it be remarked, quite 
different from that in which it has the force oi particularizing 
the thing to which it relates. Wlien I say, datemi del pane, 
give me some bread, I mean no particular bread : when I say 
datemi dei libri, I am alluding to no particular books. But I 
mean, in these instances, an indeterminate quantity or number 
of the whole kind of thing or things spoken of. Now, in 
speaking of bread and books, in general, without at all alluding 
to quantity or number, the Italians would say. 



II pane ^ un alimcnto sano. 
^ / libri soao necessarj agli studiosi- 



Bread is a wholesome food. 
Books are necessary to the studious. 



And, then, speaking of an indeterminate quantity or number of 
the same things, it appears equally reasonable to use the arti- 
cle. Reasonable, however, it does not appear to us to use the 
Article in either case. But, it seems to me, that in using 
the Article here, there is something left to be understood. 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 16^ 

and that such phrases are elliptical ; and that, when we say, 
for example, il pane e un 'alimento sano, what is meant is, la 
cosa che si chiamapane, the thi?ig which is called head ; and, 
according to the same manner of explanation, datemi del 
pane, means, if the words were amplified to the full sen»e that 
is intended, datemi una quantity, or una porzioney della 
COSA che si chiama pane, give me a quantity, or a portion, 
of the thing which is called bread. 

To express some, as relates to quantity, meaning a little of, 
the Italians generally use the words un tanthio di, or un poco 
di ; and, as regards number, they frequently use the plural ad- 
jectives alcuni, alcunc, or qualcheduni, qualchedune, which 
mean some, or some few. These latter words are, also, some- 
times indeterminate pronouns, as noticed in the list under 
Paragraph 46. Thus, we may say, using the article with the 
preposition di: - 



Datemi del pane, 

Ho dei cavilli, 

Ho ricevuto delle lettere, 

Ci soiio dcgii uomini in questa casa, 



Give me some bread. 

I have some horses. 

I have received some letters. 

There are some men in this house. 



Or, we may express the same sense in the other way : 



Datemi un poco, or un tantino 

di pane, 
Ho alcinii cavfilli, 
Ho ricevuto alcune lettere, 
Ci sono qualchcdiuii u6mini in 

questa casa, 



Give me a little bread. 

I have sonie horses. 

1 liave received some letters. 

There are some men in this honse. 



We see, that after the words un poco, or un tantino, the Ita- 
lians use di, of; while we do not do this, in general, after 
our words a little. With the nouns quantifa, porzione, 
soprabbonddnza, and other nouns signifying quantity 'in an 
indeterminate sense, the two languages are alike, and the 
preposition, without the article, is employed : as. 



una quantita di panno, 

unaporzi6ne di vino, 

una soprabbonddnza difrutto, 



a quantity of cloth. 

a portion of 7vine. 

a superabundance of fruit. 



Also, when we make use of nouns which serve to define the 
quantity, measure, number, or weight of things, the two 
languages are alike, and no article is employed; as, 

I 



170 SYNTAX [Chap. 



StOjO di nrano, 
Bri'cio di pnnno, 
Ala di tMa, 
Fotrlietia «/i cino, 
Lfibiirn d\ }ianr, 
Dicchier d' acrptii, 
JMiglinjo 'Vvomiiti, 



liushel of corn. 
^ fird of chit h. 
i-ll of Hum. 
I'lnl of nine. 
I'oniid of hrrad. 
(iliiss ofn-titt^. 
'J Iifjusand of mm. 



To those who have learned French, it may not he useless 
to observe, that there is a good deal of diirercnce between 
the French and the ItQ.lian^ as relates to the use of 
this definite article with the preposition diy of, in the sense 
of some, when speaking of quantity indefinitely. Wliile the 
Italians, like us, may either omit or employ the article, accord- 
ing as they mean to express the some, or not, the French 
cannot make this distinction. We say, give nie bread, or, give 
me some bread; the Italians, also, say, daf.etni pane, or, 
datcmi dej. pane; but the French cannot here omit the article: 
they must say, donnez-moi du pai?i, meaning, give mc bread, 
and, donnez-moi du pain, meaning, give me some bread ; and 
not donnez-moi pain, in either case. 

Again, in speaking of number indefinitely, v>c may say in 
Italian, the same as in our own language, ho veduto cavalli 
ncl prato, I have seen horses in the meadow; or, ho veduto 
DEI cavalli ncl prato, I have seen some horses in the mcadovr. 
But the French is incapable of making this distinction; and, 
in that language, the phrases, I have seen horseSy &c., and 
I have seen some horses, &c., must both be translated by, j'ai 
vu DES chevaux dans le prt. There is, however, as I have 
before observed, another way of expressing some, as relates to 
indefinite number ; and this holds good in French as well as in 
Italian ; for, while the Italians may say, alcuni cavalli, some, 
or some few, horses, the French may say, quelques chevaux, 
some, or some few, horses; instead of dei cavalli, and des 
chevaux. We see, therefore, that the French are driven to 
the use of the adjective plural quelques, while the Italians 
can clearly express our word some, meaning an indejinite 
number, either by the preposition di with the article ; or, by 
the adjectives alcuni, qualcheduni, which are equivalent to 
the quelques of the French. 

When there is an adjective attached to the noun, and we 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 171 

wish to express sorrie, in speaking of number, tlicn we may 
either use the article, with the preposition cli, or the preposition 
■alone : as, 

EgVi ha di biioni libr'i, -j 

or, [• He has some good books. 

E^Vi ha dti buoni Ubri, J 

In the two following examples we see, in the one case, the 
preposition without the article, and, in the other, the article 
and preposition hoth : 

lo ho di belli giojcUi. Boc. T). | I have some beautiful jewels. 



Fattocoglier de' pm be'' frutli, e </<?' 
piii 6e'/?ori, clie v' erano", &c. 

Boc. D. 



Havirif^ caused to be gathered some 
of tlie liiiest fruits and some of tlie 
finest flowers that were there. 



In both instances we here see the preposition, with or without 
the article, used in the sense of our word some. In the first of 
these it was optional with the Vv'riter to use the article or not, 
according to the foregoing example di buoni libri, or, dei 
buoni libri; and it might_, with propriety, have been, lo ho 
dei or de' belli giojelli, as well as, lo ho di belli giojelli. 
But, in tlie latter instance the article vras indispensable ; 
because, the fruits and fiowers are particularized, as being 
those which were in a place that Boccaccio was writing about ; 
and the two languages are alike, both here requiring the definite 
article : de"* jpiit be" frutti, &c che v crano, some of the finest 
fruits, &c. that were there. 

There are cases, as relates to indefinite number, in which 
we, in English, should not use the some at all, and yet in 
Italian, as in French, the sense of that word would be expressed. 
This happens,, generally, after verbs signifying a making, caus- 
ing, or giving rise to in some way: as. 

La curiosita ha sovente prodotto de' I Curiosity has often produced sad 
tristi cffvtti, I effects. 

Here we should not say, as they do in Italian, curiosity has 
often produced some sad effects. Yet, we might say, your 
curiosity has produced sad effecis, or, your curiosity has pro- 
duced some sad effects. And observe, that, in our language, 
this is not a mere variety of expression without any difierence 

i2 



172 SYNTAX [Chap. 

in sense; for, the some does, by implication, though not 
expressly, particularize the effects; vhile the omiflsion of it 
leaves the effects to be understood in a sense perfectly general 
and indefinite. In using the some, here, we do mean to allude 
to Sonne particular effects, although the very effects be not 
actually pointed out; but not so when the some h omitted; 
for, there not only are no particular effects expressed, but 
none are even implied. Your curiosity has produced sad 
effects : in this there is nothing either to express, or to leave 
to be understood, that we allude to any particular effects; but, 
•when we sny, your curiosity has produced some sad effects; 
in this case, though we do not express, or actually point out, 
what or Ahich the effects are, we do mean it to be understood, 
by implication, that there are particular effects to which we 
allude. So, in our example, curiosity has often produced sad 
effects, not only are the words general and indefinite as to the 
effects, but the idea is so also, and clearly so, for the often 
here shows that we mean effects at no particular time. Leave 
out the often, and say, curiosity has produced some sad effects: 
here the sense is, clearly, exactly similar to that which we 
should intend in the example, your curiosity has produced S07ne 
sad effects. This, then, is the difference between the two lan- 
guages in such cases, that, while we can, by using or not using 
tVie some, make this nice distinction in our meaning, the Italians 
cannot do so, but they must use both the preposition and the 
article before the noun, whether they mean to express the sense 
of our word some, or not. 

In the syntax of adjectives I shall again have to notice the 
manner of translating our word some ; and, also, how our word 
any is expressed by the Italians. And then, too, there will 
have to be noticed some other words expressive of quantity or 
number indefinitely. This would not properly come under the 
hea.d of Articles ; therefore see Paragraph 179. 

100. Before quitting this definite article, I must once more 
notice a manner of using prepositions before nouns, omitting 
the article ; before such nouns, T mean, as generally have the 
article when the thing, or whole kind of the thing, is spoken of 
in 2l general sense. Under Paragraph 192 I have noticed how 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 173 

the names of countries, &c., when used adjectively, or as 
something by which to characterize or distinguish something 
else, may be used with the preposition di, the article being 
omitted. And, here, I have again to notice the same sort of 
thing, as relates to various other sorts of nouns. Under Para- 
graph 95 I have given the examples of, la terra, the earth, 
il mare, the sea, il vento, the wind, il fuoco, fire, Vacqua, 
water, Voro, gold, Vargcnto, silver, Vorzo, barley; wherein we 
see that the article must be used in Italian, but not in English, 
excepting with the nouns earth, sea, and wind, which require 
the article in both languages. Let us take some examples of 
these nouns with the article omitted. 



tin verme di terra, 

un porto di mare, 

un pesce di mare, 

un mulino da vento, or, a vento, 

una paletta da fuoco, 

■nn mulino rf' acqua, or, a acquu, 

un anello d' oro, 

una coppa d' oro, 

Tina miniera d'argento, 

un cucchiajo d'argetito, 

pan d' orzo, 

acqua d'orzo, 



an earth-worm. 
a sea-port, 
a sea-tish. 
a wind-miil. 
a fire-shovel, 
a water mill, 
a gold-ring. 
a gold-cup. 
a silver-mine, 
a silver-spoon, 
barlej'- bread, 
barley-water. 



It is very important to observe the use of such phrases : they 
a^e sure to puzzle us, if we do not know the rule according 
to which the article is here omitted. For, whv should we not 
say, un verme della terra, un pesce del mare, &c., and so em- 
ploy the article as well as the preposition, since, when we are 
speaking of the earth, the sea, Jire, water, &c,, in a general 
sense, we must say, in Italian, la terra, il mare, il fuoco, 
Z'acqua, &c.? It is easy to perceive, that ail these nouns, given 
in the above examples, namely, terra, mare, fuoco, acqua^ oro, 
argento, orzo, are all here used in an adjective sense, and 
that they serve merely to characterize, or merely to express 
some peculiarity of the kind, or nature, of the things having 
the different names,of verme, porto, pesce, paletta, mulino, 
anello, coppa, miniera, cucchiajo, pane, acqua. The rule, 
then, is, that, when the one noun is used merely in an adjective 
sense in relation to the other noun, as in the above examples, 
the preposition alone is to be employed ; but, if it be not used 



174 SYNTAX [Chap, 

in that sense mcrthjy tljcn we must employ tlie article as well 
as tlie prrjjosition. We ought not to say, ilfrcmito di marCf 
the rap;ii)g of die sea; alia ripa Di acqua, at the water's side ; 
but, il Jrcmilo i^kl ynarCy alia ripa dy.li' acqua ; because, 
the nouns mare and acqua are not used here adjectively in 
relation to ilie other nouns frimito and r^^a. Again, we 
should say : il marmo I una pietra solida, marble is a solid 
stone ; la soUditu di:l marmo, the solidity of marble ; here we 
should u>>e the aiticle in both instances, for the reason before 
given; yet, we should not say, U7ia statva del marmo, a 
§tatue of marble, but, una atatua di marmo ; that is, using 
the noun viarmo adjectively, a marble statue. 

101. When two or more nouns come iumiediately together 
in a sentence, and the verb which precedes or follows the nouns 
relates to both or all of them, a^d tlie first noun has the article 
before it ; in such case, the article must be repeated before 
each of the nouns : as, 

The wine, bread, oil, and sugar, I II vino, il pane, V olio, e lo suc- 
which .... I cheroy clie .... 

I bave bonplit some nine, bread, I lo ho cnmprato rff/ii7io,6'c/ /yanf, 
oil, auJ sugar, I dcW olio, e ddlo ziicchero. 

Also, whenever, in English, there are two or more nouns, and 
they have a covjunctioii between them, and they are distin- 
guished by the first noun having the article before it, we must, 
in Italian, repeat the article before each noun: as, 

The favours AND kindnesses that I f/avori F. le yrazie chc ho lice- 

I have received from you, 1 vuti da voi. 

Which have yoa seen, Ike man or i Quale avete veduto, /' M<lmo o la 
nomnu ? | donna * 

I ha^ seen neither the man nor I Non ho veduto ne I' u6mo ne la 

iroman, ' I donna. 

We might here, in our language, repeat the ihe and the some, 
and say, the wine, and the bread, &c., some wine and some 
bread, &c., the favours and the kindnesses, &c., the man 
or the woman 1 neither the man nor the woman-, but, while 
this is, in a great measure, a matter of choice with us, it is 
a general rule v.ith the Italians, that, in such cases, the article 
must be repeated. 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 175 

When there is more than one adjective preceding a noun, 
and the adjectives both or all relate to the same noun, no 
article is required before the second adjective in the Italian, 
any more than in our own language : as, 

Lc numcrose e belle province I The numerous and beautiful pro- 

dell' Italia, I vjiices of Italy, 

102. Before the words morninrj y evening, day, night, and 
the names of the different days of the week, we frequently 
find the definite article employed alone in Italian, where, in 
our language, we should require a preposition, or a preposition 
along with the article: as, 

Monta a cavallo /a jnaff/nc, l He rides on horseback in the 

I viornivg. 

Vo all' 6pera la sera, | I go to the opera in the evening. 

Vegliano la nolle, e d6rmono 27 I Tliey sit up «i nf^rAi and sleep ire 

giorno, I the daij. 

Va in chiesa la Domcniea, \ He goes to church of a Sunday. 

Vn giornalc che comparisce il I A newspaper that comes out o« a 
Lunedi, I Monday. 

In speaking of the twenty-four hours of the day, the Italians 
call twelve o'clock mezzo giorno (mid-day), and one o'clock 
un' or a (one hour) ; and, with the other hours, they use the 
definite article, and say, le due, le tre, le quattro, le cinqUe, 
le sei, le sette, le otto, le nove, le died, V undid ; two o'clock, 
three o'clock, &c.,or, literall}^, the two, the three, cLnd so forth. 

103. The definite article will again have to be mentioned, 
as respects the employment of it in lieu of the j:)ossessive prO" 
Qioun, and the placing of it before the infinitives of verbs. 
See Paragraphs 146 and 244. 

Of the Indefnite Article. 

104. As the definite article is, according to what we have 
seen, much more frequently brought into use in Italian than 
it is in English, so this indefinite article is of much less 
frequent use with the Italians than it is Vvith us. By referring 
to the etymology of articles. Paragraph 18, it will be seen 
that the English indefinite a or an is expressed, in Italian, by 
the word uno, v^hich changes to un, una, un\ We have 
already seen, that uno, un, una, or uri , are employed to 



1'^ SYNTAX [Chap. 

express two very tliflerent ideas: that, in the one case, they 
JTiay all be articles, and, in the other, all numerical adjectives. 
Let us take some examples of the uno, un, una, un\ as em- 
ployed in both ways. 



I.fi donna hn uno sp^rrhio, 

£lln non lin die uno tp^cchio, 

V era un urtmo, 

Non v' era clu- fin iiAmo, 

V' ^ una donna nell.i ca«a, 

Vna delle donne c rella casa, 

lo vidi un' accadtmin, 

Ho vediito rm' accademia almrio, 



The ln<!y has a lonkinr-(;la«s. 
She has but one looking-glass. 
There w n« n man. 
There was hut one man. 
There is « lady in the hoose. 
One of the ladies in in the house. 
I .<iaw oM academy. 
I have seen one academy, at least. 



Here we see that our article a or an, and our numerical 
adjective one, are both expressed, in Italian, by one or other 
of the four words, ?f7zo, un, una, un ; and that one word, in 
fact, though subject to four varieties of form in spelling, serves 
both for the article and the adjective. 

105. It is an important thing, as regards this indefinite 
article, to know to what extent the use of it may be dispensed 
with in Italian. In many cases it may be left out, where we 
could not omit it, in English, and this omission occurs in con- 
versation, as well as in prose-writing and poetry ; though, to 
be sure, the poets do here, as in every other instance, take the 
greatest liberties. The Italians say, for example, 



lo non ho mai coBosciiito uomo 
pid gentroso, 

Veramente ella i btlla donna, 



I have never known a man more 
generous. 

Truly she is a handsome lady. 



These, literally translated, are, I have never known ma7i more 
generous, truly she is handsome lady. Our ear tells us 
that, in the first of these, the article might be omitted in our 
language ; but the reason of this is, that, in that example, we 
should, in omitting the article, mean the word any,^ny man, 
to be understood, and not tiie article «; and we may, in our 
language, and we frequently do, use such phrases as this. But, 
in the second example, it would not do for us to omit the 
article, and say, she is handsome lady ; for,^we mean a, and 
not any handsome lady. The article is, in Italian, generally 
omitted, when there is an adjective, or some word expres- 
sive of an adjective meaning, attached to the noun ; as is the 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 177 

case with the examples uonio generoso and bella donna, 
and as in the following examples : 

Vmana cosa e aver compassione degli | It is a humane thing to Lave compas 
alBitti, &c. Boc. 1). I sipn for the aHlicted. 



Tt mp est OS o furor non fu mai 1* ira, 

lu magndninio petto, &c. 

GuA. p. F. 



Anger never was a tempestuous rage 
iu a magnanimous breast. 



Maraviglidsa cosa parve a tutH. j It appeared a surprising thing to 

Boc. D. I all. 

Giungemmo iu prato di fresca verdura. J We arrired ia a meadow of fresh 

Dan. Ix. i verdure. 

Spesso del cor segno fallace e 1' opra. I The deed is often a false sign of the 

Gh, V. P. F. I heart, 

Non gia de' boschi abilatrice senibra. I Not indeed of the woods does she seem 

Tas. G. L. I an inhabitant. 



Che con imptira man toccar non lice 
Cosa sacra agli dei. 

GuA. p. F. 



For with an impure hand it is not 
lawful to touch a thing sacred to 
the gods. 



But, it does not always require that there should be something 
of an adjective kind for the article to be omitted. For, the 
poets do pretty nearly what they like as to the use or omission 
of the indefinite article. 

Sgorga dal fianco dell' alpestremasso I From the side of the wild rock flows 
Fon<e, che&c. Cas. A. P. I a/ountaiw, which, &c. 

E siccome sae/<a, che nel segno I And like an arrow that strikes in the 

Percuote, &c. Tas. A. 1 mark. 

Dicovi ch' ^ Zerbin, di re figliuolo. I I tell you that it is Zerbin, the son. of 

Ari. O. F. I a king. 

In these two examples there is no word at all of an adjective 
meaning having relation to the nouns Jonte, saetta, re ; and yet 
the article is omitted. The omission of the indefinite article, 
in cases where it would, strictly speaking, be required, is by 
no means uncommon in our language: I have given the fore- 
going examples just to show that the Italians enjoy this license 
to a much greater extent than we do. To point out e.ery 
instance of difference, in respect to this matter, between the 
two languages, would be an almost endless work. It is, after 
all, much more a matter of taste than any thing else. I have 
thought it useful, however, to give a few examples here, as a 

. 1 5 



J78 



SYNTAX 



[Cliap. 



hint to the learner of what he may expect to meet with in 
Italian writing. 

lOG. In our language, we employ the indefinite article, 
a or an, before a noun in the singular number, when the verb 
io be is used as applicable to the noun, and the noun is used 
to represent the profession, rank, state, country, or any 
distinctive mark of a person 3 but, in Italian, the article is, in 
such cases, omitted : as, \ 



He is n poet, 
'J'his raiin is a physician, 
He is a fjmtlemun, 
S!ic was a pniims, 
I arn an Kn'jlishynan, 
Yuu are an Jiuliun, 



Erjli 6 poila. 
Quest' uomo i:niidico. 
Trli i; gentilu6mn. 
Ella ixiprivrijcxaa. 
Io hono Iiii/lcsf. 
Voi siete Italidno. 



And we must not say, cgli c un poeta, quest' uomo e un medico, 
&c. But, when there is any thing having relation adjectively 
to the noun, then the article is, almost always, expressed in 
Italian : as, 



wn poeta di grand' ingenio, 

iin )nef.'(fo»csperto, 

un penlihio.no til gran condizione, 

Tin luUiano dotlo, 



a poet of great ^'enias. 
a ."-kilfiil physician, 
a sentlenian ofhii(h estate, 
a learned Italian. 



Again, whenever there comes, immediately after the noun, 
another noun, or another noun and an adjective, the second 
noun or noun and adjective being employed to characterize, or 
distinguish in some way, the person represented by the noun 
coming before ; then the article, which must be employed in 
our language, is omitted in the Italian: as, 



Tassn, a poet of Italy, 
Boccaccio, a witty writer, 
Kpaminnadas, a famous general, 
Henry, a son of Tiiomas, 



Tasso, preta d' Italia, 
lioccaccio, scrittor spiritoso. 
Jilpamiiionda, famoso ^cnerale. 
Eitrico, tiglio di Tomaso. 



When, however, the noun is in any other case than that of the 
nominativn, the article must be employed in Italian, as well 
as in English : as. 



The works of « poet, 

1 spoV.e to an Italian pliyfician, 

We saw a gentleman, 

Tlie book was given to me by an 

Englishman, 



Le opere d' un poeta. 
Jo parlai ad un ni6dicoItaliano. 
Noi vedetnmo un trentihiomo. 
II libro mi lu dato da wi Inglcsc. 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 179 

It may be asked, here, wliy the article must be employed in 
Italian, while, in the example in Paragraph 105, namely> 
io non lio mai conosciiito u6 mo piu. generoso. we see the article 
may be omitted, although the noun uomo is placed iu the 
objective case by the verb conuscerc, to know. The reason 
is this, that, in that example, there is no particular man even 
supposed, while, in the foregoing four examples, it is clear that 
Iwe have in our eye some particular poet^ Italian physiciany 
fjentleman, JEnglishman. For, while it is not the business of the 
indefinite article absolutely to particularize, as the definitive 
article does; yet, like the word some, as mentioned under 
Paragraph 98, it may imply that we are alluding to a 
particular person, though it do not express w^ho the person is. 
But the truth is, after all, that principle is not all-prevailing 
as respects the manner of using or omitting this indefinite 
article : there can be hardly any satisfactory reason given 
why it is not customary to say, Boccaccio, uno scrittor spiritoso, 
as well as, io parlo ad un medico Italiano. In both cases, we 
are alluding to a particular person ; and the grammar of the 
whole of the two phrases is perfectly similar, excepting that, 
in one case the noun is in the nominative, and, in the other, 
the noun is not so. i 

107. We, in English, employ the indefinite article before the 
words hundred and thousand; but the Italians do not: as, 

A hundred crowns, 1 Cfttito scudi. 

A thousand cio'Xns, I MiWe scudi. 

Before the w'ords ceiito and mille the article can never be used. 
In En^iish, the words hundred and thousand are, properly, 
nouns of midtitude ,- but in Italian they are adjectives. The 
y^!0\d. centinujo, which means a hundred, and migliajo, W'hich 
means a thousand, take the article, as also does the word 
millione, which means a million-, but after these, Avhich are, 
like the English hundred and thousand, nouns of multitude, 
there requires the preposition di, of, in Italian, which we, in 
this instance, seldom employ : as, 



A hundred (or a hundred of) ciown?, 
A thousand (or a thousand of ) crowns, 
A mUlion (of a million of] croAiis, 



Uncentin/ijo di scudi. 
Un m'hjliajiydi sciuii. 
Un milliOne. di scudi. 



180 SYNTAX [Chap. 

108. In lliose cases wljere we use the article a or an before 
a noun, iiumedialely after the word whal^ in the way of eic/a- 
matiOHy tlie article must be omitted in Italian: as, 



Whtt a man .' 

What a horsf is this I 

^\hat an uurx/jtitrd thing is this I 



Che uimo t 

Chf cavallo ^quesfo' 

Clic cusa improviiia c quetta ! 



109. Our indefinite article is frequently used before a 
noun after the words so and such. The Italians use the 
article too in this way ; but the situation of it in the sentence 
is not the same as it would be in English, the article, in such 
cases, always standing immediately before the words which 
represent our so or such ; as, iin tal uomo, such a man ; un tal 
eflfetto, such an effect ; un tanto piacere, so great a pleasure ; 
un cos} grand' uomo, so great a man. We may, however, give 
such phrases another turn, and then the order of the words 
would be the same in both languages; as, u?i uomo cos) grande, 
a man so great, &c. Italian writers frequently omit the article 
altogether in phrases similar to these. See the following 
examples : 

Se io avessi cosl bella cotta come I If I had such a handsome gown as 
ella, &c. Nov. Ant. 1 she. 

Siamaladetto chi fnMegge pose, &c. i Cursed be he who imposed such a 

Aiu. O. F. j law. 

Che giova a me aver si caio ainante ? i What avails it to me to have so dear a 

Gii.\. P. F. I lover? 

110. Before nouns expressive of weight, measure, or tale, 
we, in English, use either the definite or the indefinite article; 
but here the Italians use the definite article only: as. 

Grapes are sold at two shillings L' uva si vende a dae scellini la 

the {or a) pound, | hbbra. 

He sells wheat at ten shillings (Ae { Eeli vende i! grano a dieci scel- 

[^OX a) bushel, ' \\\\'\ lo slajo. 

We bsy cloth at four crowns the j Compriamo il panno a qaattro 
(or u) yord, I scudi il braccio. 

111. It must be evident that it has not been without reason 
that I have occupied so much room in speaking of this part 
of speech, the article. Articles are but little words, and they 
are few io number. But, the employment of them occurs 



XVI.] OF ARTICLES. 181 

constantly ; and there is, as I think I have pretty well shown, 
a great difference between the manner of using them in our 
language, and that in which they are used in the Italian ; and 
this, more particularly, as respects the definite article. I 
have endeavoured to let nothing pass unnoticed, as far as 
•principle was concerned ; and I have, at the same time, 
noticed the main differences between the English and the 
Italian which consist merely in practice. 



183 SYNTAX . ' [Chap. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Syxtax of Nouns, 

» 

112. As to tliis part of Italian grammar, as a separate part, 
there will not be much to command the student's attention. 
The main thin^ for him to attend to here, will be the agree- 
ment between the article and the noun; and this, though 
strictly belonging to Syntax, I have, in order to make the 
matter clear as I went on, been obliged to explain in the 
Etymology of Nouns. The article must always agree with 
the noun in gender and number-, and, besides, nouns do, 
according to their spelling, require the article to be spelled 
sometimes in one way and sometimes in another way. It 
would be quite needless to go fully into all these matters agarin 
here ; therefore, see what has already been said under Para- 
graph 29. 

113. In English, we commonly put an s, with an apostrophe 
over it, at the end of a noun in the possessive case, instead 
of using the preposition of; and, when the noun is in the 
plural number, we put the apostrophe alone : as, Richard's 
hat, the horse's bridle, the woman s gown, the riders horses ; 
instead of, the hat of Richard, the bridle of the horse, the 
gown of the woman, the horses of the riders. Now, in 
Italian, the preposition must, in such cases, always be em- 
ployed, as it is in the four latter of these phrases, in English. 
The Italians have but the one mode of expressing the posses- 
sive case with the noun: it must always be, il cappello di 
Ricciardo, the hat of PJchard, la briglia del cavullo, the 
bridle o/ the horse, la gunn'a della donna, the gown of the 
woman^ i cavulli dei cavalcatorij the horses o/ the riders; 



XVII.] OP NOL^s. 183 

and so forth. I am here speaking, observe, of what relates 
merely to the use of the noun itself ; for, in eases where the 
possessive pronoun is employed, it is quite another matter.- 
In speaking of Richard^ for example, we say, his hat, as well 
as, Richard's hat, or, the hat of Richard ; and the Italians 
use the possessive pronoun in just the same way. For the 
syntax of the possessive pronoun, see Paragraph 129. To 
the cases I mean, as I have before said, to devote a separate . 
chapter: see Paragraph 277. I have here spoken of the 
possessive case, merely for the sake of mentioning this dif- 
ference b'etween the two languages. There is one thing 
more, as relates to the noun in the possessive case, an 
idiom that I should notice here ; and it is this, . that the 
Italians sometimes omit the di after the word casa, house, 
when the noun casa comes immediately before some noun 
representing the person to whom the Jioiise belongs : Casa 
White, Casa Brown; instead of, Casa di IVhite, Casa di 
Brown, the house, of White, the house of Brown. The fol- 
lowing are examples : 

Ell' lia mandato la fante a casa la 1 She has sent her servant to the house 
madre. Mac. C. I of her mother. 

Ella, sua arnica, in casa il medico 1 She, his friend, had brought him into 
menato I' avea. Boc. D. 1 the house of the doctor. 

That is, a casa la madre, instead of, a casa della madre ; in 
casa il medico, instead of, in casa del medico. 

1 14. One of the great advantages that our language has, 
compared with others, consists in its power of making 
those compound nouns which I had occasion to notice in the 
Syntax of Articles, under Paragraph 99. We have great 
numbers of such nouns in our language, and we form them of 
two nouns, either both joined in one, or having a hyphen be- 
tween them : as, schoolmaster, wherein we may join tu-o nouns 
together without the hyphen, and hay-loft^ wherein the hyphen 
is required. There is no such thing as this iu the Italian 
language. When we look in the Dictionary for these compound 
nouns of ours, we find them translated, in Italian, by a single 
noun and an adjective, or, by two separate nouns, with a pre- 



184 



STNTAX 



[Chap. 



position to express the relation of the one to the other. The 
following are some examples, in addition to those given in 
Paragraph 99. 



a waterman, 
a water-fall, 
a nater-/onl, 
a STtordsmarty 
a nint-merchant, 
a tchoolmaster, 
a nind-mill, 
a nater-pot, 
a nine-Jlniik, 
a snuff-boT, 
a nine-ctUar. 



on barcajuolo. 
una caicdt*. 
un ucciHo acqiidtico. 
un n^mo di spada. 
un mfrcunfr <fi oino. 
un mai^tro di scuola. 
un mnlinn a lento. 
an caso da arry>ia. 
un/Jasfo da r;;io. 
una5ra(o/a da tubdcco. 
ana rantfna da vino. 



There will, as I have before observed, be some explanation 
required as relates to the use of the different prepositions rfe, a, 
and c?a, in cases similar to the above. But this is a matter 
belonging to the Syntax of Prepositions ; therefore see Para- 
graph 307. 

115. There are in the Italian, as in our language, some few 
nouns, which are called nouns of multitude : as, il popolo, 
the people, U7ia gente^ a people or nation, il popoMzzo^ the 
mob, la canaglia, the low or vulgar, la plebe, the common 
people, 2i7ia banda^ a band, una compagn'ia, a company ; and 
such-like. These are called nou7is of multitude^ because, 
though employed in the singular number, they signify a multi- 
tude, or a greater number than one, of the persons or things to 
which they relate, in a collective sense. 



XVIII.] or PRONOUNS. 185 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

Syntax of Pronouns. 

116. In the Etymology of this part of speech, (see Para- 
graph 35,) I have divided the pronouns into six classes ; 
calling them personal, possessive, relative, demonstrative, 
interrogative, and indeterminate. And now, having to con- 
sider the syntax of each of these classes, we will take them 
in the same order as that in which they stand under the head 
of Etymology. 

Of Personal Pronouns. 

117. One of the most striking differences between the Italian 
language and our own, consists in the use or omission, at 
choice, of the personal pronoun. When a personal pronoun 
is the nominative of a verb, it is not always necessary, in 
Italian, as it is in English, to express the pronoun at all. It 
may, generally speaking, be either used or omitted, at the 
option of the writer or speaker. In the three examples of the 
conjugations of regular verbs, and in the conjugations of the 
verbs avere and essere, I have, (see Paragraph 63,) through- 
out all the modes and times, employed the personal pronouns, 
in order that the learner, in getting the conjugations of each 
verb by heart, might, at the same time, get these pronouns 
fixed in his memory. But, though the Italians say, io amo, 
/ love, tu ami, thou lovest, egli or ella ama, he or she loves, 
noi amiamo, we love, voi amate, you love, eglino or elleno 
amano, they love ; and so on, throughout every mode and 
time of all verbs ; yet, if they please, they may omit the pro- 
noun ; they may say, amo, ami, ama, amidmo, amate. 



ISC 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



/imano, &:c.. ; in doing which the sense of the prououn would 
be as inucli understood by them, as if the pronoun itself were 
expressed. It is very necessary that we, in English, should 
never omit the pronoun ; for the variety in termination through- 
out the modes and times of our verbs is so little, that, if 
the j>ronoun v.ere omitted, we should not always under- 
stand whether the verb were in the Jirsty the sccondy or the 
third person, or whether it were in the simjular or the plural 
number. The use of the pronoun is absolutely necessary, in our 
language, to distinguish tiie person and the number ,- and it is 
not so necessary, in Italian, on account of the many changes in 
termination that the Italian verbs undergo. 

118. The most important matter to be attended to, as regards 
these pronouns, is the Case, I shall take the three persons ; 
first, in the singular, and then in the plural number , and 
compare them with the English, and endeavour to show how 
these pronouns are employed in Italian, going through all the 
Cases in the same order as that in wliich they were placed 
under the head of Etymology. — In speaking of the cases here, 
I do not intend to show when the pronouns ought to be in one 
Case and when in another. That is a matter of what is called 
government, which, as I have before observed, I think it best 
to treat of in a separate chapter ; for which see Paragraph 
211 . Here we shall have only to see how the pronoun has to 
be spelled according to the Case in which it is, and not un- 
der what circumstances it ought to be in any one or other 
Case. 



Singular Number. 

Nominative Case; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons: io, I, fu, 
thou, egli, he, ella, she. — In the nominative case the mat- 
ter is equally simple in both languages. There is nothing here 
to puzzle us, after we have once got the pronouns by heart. 
Examples : 



Jo sono 1' uonio che . 
Th sci r uumo che . 
Egli e 1' u6mo Che . 
EUa e la donoa che , 



/ am the man wlio . . . 
Thvu art the man who 
He is the man who . . 
Slie is the woman who , 



XVIII.] oi' piioxouNS. 187" 

There is one idiom belonging to these personal pronouns in 
the nominative Case, that it will be necessary to notice here. 
In English, we constantly make use of tlie verb to be imper- 
sonally, that is, with the word it, when we employ the pronoun 
in the nominative, in order to identity or distinguish a person or 
thing. We say, for example, it is I who say, it is thou who 
say est, and so forth. Now, the Italians cannot use the verb 
to be, in such instances, impersonally ; but they make the 
verb accord with the person to which it relates : as, 



It is I who say, 
It is thou who sayest, 
It is he who says, 
It is she who says. 
It is lie who say, 
It is you who say, 
It is they who say. 



Sono io che dico. 

Sei tu che dici. 

£ eyli che dice. 

Eella che dice. 

Siuino noi che diciamo. 

Sicte voi che dite. 

Sono egliKo, or elleno che dicono. 



Here, the Italian verb to be is placed before the pronoun ; and 
the phrases literally translated, are, / am I who say, tJwu art 
thou who sayest, he is he who says, &c. It is the same as 
this throughout all the modes and times of the verb : io fui 
che dissi, it v.as I who said, io saro che diro, it will be I who 
will say, &c. I have here given examples of the plural number, 
along with the singular, in order not to have to mention this 
matter again, when we come to the pronouns in the plural 
number. One notice of it will be sufficient. 

Possessive Case ; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons : di me, of me, 
di te, of thee, di lui, of him, di lei, of her. — In the possessive 
Case these pronouns are as easy a matter as they are in the 
nominative : 



Ta parli di jji", 
Io parlorfi te, 
E<;li parJa di luiy^ 
Ella parla di lei, 



Then speakest of me. 
I speak. ()/ thee. 
He speaks of hint. 
She speaks of her. 



Thus it must always be, when the preposition di, of, which 
is the sign of the possessive Case, comes immediately before 
the pronouns me, thee, him, her, in Italian. So they say, 
questo e il capptllo di 3IE, this is the hat of 7ne ; questo e il 
cavdllo DI TE, this is the horse of thee ; questi sono i cant di 
Lui, these are the dogs of him ; questi so?io i libri di lei. 



188 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



these are the books of her. Not that this sort of phrases is, in 
Italian, any more than in English, the only one, by wliich the 
possession of a thing may be attributed ; for we may say in 
Italian, as in English, this is inij hat, this is his hat, &c.; but 
this is a matter that belongs to the possessive proiwuus, pro- 
perly so called, of which we shall see in Paragraph 129. 



Dative Case; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons: a me or mi, to 
me, a te or ti, to thee, a lui or [jli, to him, a lei or le, to 
her. — The nominative and possessive Cases are, as we have 
seen, plain enough ; but this Case is quite another thing, and 
some attention is necessary to understand it well. In the 
nominative, we have seen that / is represented by io, thou 
by tu, he by egli, she by ella ; then, again, in the possessive, 
of me is represented by di me, of thee by di te, of him by di 
lui, of her by di lei. In those two Cases, there is but the one 
word in each person, to answer to the one word in English, 
But here, in the dative, we see two different words answering 
for each single word of ours : for our me, me and mi, for our 
thee, te and ti, for our hi77i, lui and gli, and for our her, Zeiand 
le. Now, to explain the use of these pronouns in the dative 
Case, observe that, whenever the preposition a, to, which is 
the sign of the dative Case, is made use of, then we must era- 
ploy me, te, lui, lei ; and when we want to express the dative 
without using the preposition, then we must employ 77U, ti, gli, 
le. Examples: 



Egli dd il cappello o me, 
Io do il cappello a te, 
Egli da il cavallo a lui, 
Ella da il libro a lei. 



He gives the hat to me. 
I give the bat to thee. 
He gives the horse to him. 
She gives the book to her. 



In these examples, the English and the Italian are similar ; the 
preposition a, to, is employed in both languages. Now, if we 
leave out the preposition in such phrases, in English, we still 
preserve the sa?ne pronouns, namely, me, thee, him, her. But, 
not so in Italian: if, in Italian, the preposition be omitted, 
then there must be altogether different words to express our 
me, thee, him, her. Examples : 



XVIII.] OF PRONOUNS. 189 



Egli mi dAil capp^llo, 
lo ti do il cappello, 
E^li yli da il cavillo, 
Ella le da il libro, 



He gives me the hat. 
I give thee the hat. 
He gives liivi the horse. 
She gives her the book- 



Here, in these latter examples, we see that the situation of the 
pronoun in the sentence is very different from what it is in 
English. We now come to the fourth, namely, the objective 
Case. 

Objective Case ; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons : me or mi, me ; 
(e or ti, thee ; lui or il or lo, him ; lei or la^ her. — It will be 
observed, here, that some of these pronouns are the same words 
as those which are used as articles ; namely, /o, il, and la. I 
need only say, that, though they are the same words as the ar- 
ticles, as regards their spelling, they are, here, quite different in 
their meaning : in the one case, the lo^ il, and la, all represent 
our word the • but here, in their capacity of pronouns, they 
mean the same as our him and her. And, in order not to have 
to mention this same thing again, I beg the reader to observe 
that it is thus, also, with other pronouns that we shall presently- 
come to, as, also, with some others that we have already had to 
notice, namely, gli, le, and li ; which, like lo, il, and la, have 
all the double capacity of article and pronoun. — In the dative 
Case we have seen that there are, in Italian, two pronouns 
answering to each one of ours. Here, in the objective, it is 
the same again j and, to represent our pronoun hirrij in the 
objective, we see that there are no less than three different 
words in the Italian. Examples : 



Egli ama me, 

or 
Egli mi ama, 


} 


He loves me. 


lo arao te, 

or 
lo ti amo, 


} 


I love thee. 


lo vidi lui. 


"J 




or 
lo il yidi, 


} 


I saw Aim; 


lo/osfascio, 


1 


1 unbind him. 


lo vidi lei. 


■) 




or 
lo la Yidi, 


} 


I saw her. 





Dan. In. 


lo il vidi jeri. 


Boc. D. 


lo lo servirb fermanv'nle. 


Boc. D. 



190 SYNTAX [Cliap, 

Here wc sec, that mi has the same meaning as me, ti thf; same 
as te, la the same as lei ; and then there are two words having 
the same meaning, as ltd, namely, il and lo. The use of il or 
loj here, is not a matter of indifference; and, tlierefore, it will 
retjuire some explanation. There has been a good deal of 
dispute amongst grammarians as regards this matter. It has 
been said, that, whenever the pronoun Aim, in Italian, comes 
before the verb of wjiich it is the object, then we must use il. 
J3ut this is not the case. Certain it is that il, if used at all, 
ought to come before the verb ; but we may also use lo, placing 
that pronoun in the same situation. Examples : 

Jif(i tu il consent!, Amore. l Nor dost thou permit it, Love. 

Tas. G. L. I 

....pensando clieiZfessi per vnijlia, &c. I Thinking that I did ?< through incli- 

I natioa. 

I I saw him yesterday. 

I I will serve Aim steadfastly. 

Here wc see il before the verb, used for it ; il before the verb, 
used for liim ; and then we see lo before the verb, used for him 
again ; so that the rule, that we are never to put lo before the 
vert, is wrong, according to the practice of writers, whatever it 
may be as regards modern taste. But it is not, as I have before 
observed, a mere matter of choice, whether to use the il or the 
lo. In the three examples just given, it was at the option of 
the writers to use either il or lo in either of the four instances ; 
but, if there be a verb, which begins with an s, and the s be 
immediately followed by a consonant, then we must invariably 
use lo, and not il. This is a matter of eai\ The same, it will 
be remembered, is the case with il and lo when those two words 
are used as articles, as mentioned in Paragraph 31. In the 
example that I^have given, lo lo sfdscio, I unbind him ; here is 
an illustration of it; an^d here it w^ould not do to say, lo il 
sfdscio, on account of the sf with which the verb begins. 
According to this rule are these examples : 

Ella lo sprezza. Sec. Tas. G. L. | She despises kim. 

Chi lo scrixse ? &c. Dan. In. | Who wrote it » 

Ablative Case; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons: dame,{roin me, 
da te, from thee, da lui, from him, da lei, from her. Here, as 



XVIII.] 



OF PUONOUNS. 



191 



in the nominative -and possessive Cases, the matter is a very 
simple one. The preposition da, which, as a sign of the ahla- 
tive Case, means /row?., must always be used with the pronoun 
in the ablative, and the pronoun, which always requires the 
preposition before it, never changes its own form. Examples : 



Tu r liai riceviito da me, 
lo 1' ho riceviito da te, 
Egli r ha ricevuto dii In'., 
Ella r ha ricevuto da hi, 



Thou hast received it from me. 
I have received hfronithee. 
He has received itj'rom him. 
She has received it/rom her. 



Plural Number. 

Nominative Case ; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons: noi, we, voi, 
you, cglino or tlleno, they. — This is as simple as is the nomina- 
tive in the singular number; only that, the Italians have two 
words in the third person, to express our word they. In the 
third person singular, we, like the Italians, have two words in 
order to distinguish the gender : w^e say he and she, and the 
Italians say egli and ella. But they go farther in making this 
distinction than we; and, while we have only the one word 
they to express the third person plural, they have eglino for the ^ 
masculine gender, and clleno for the feminine. Examples: 



Noi siaino gli uomini che . 
Voi siete gli uomini che . . 
Eglino sono gli u6raiai che 
Elleno sono le donne che . 



We are the men who . . . 
You are the men who . ., . 
They are the men who . . 
Thejj are the women who 



Possessive Case ; 1st, Id, and 3d persons : di noi, of us," 
di voi, of you, di loro, of them. — In this case, as in the three 
next to come, the pronoun loro answers to both the masculine 
and feminine genders. Examples: 



Voi parlate di noi, 

Noi parliamo di voi, 

Eglino, or Elleno, parlano di loro, 



Yon speak of us. 
We speak of you. 
They speak of them. 



So we must say, to repeat the same examples that I gave under 
the possessive Case in the singular number: questi sono i cappelli 
di noi, these are the hats of us, qu6sti sono i cavalli di voi, 
these are the horses of you, questi sono i cani di loro, these are 
the dogs of them (speaking of men), questi sono i libri di loro, 
these are the books of them (speaking of luomen). 



192 SYNTAX [Chap. 

Dative Cask ; Ist, 2d, and 3d persons : a not, or ci, or ne^ 
to us, a vol, or vi, to you, a loro, or loro, to them. We will 
take the same examples as those given to illustrate the dative 
singular. » 



Eglino, or Elleno danno i cap- 
pelli a not, 

Noi (lidmo i capp^Ui a voi, 

£gIino, or Elleno danno i capp611t 
a lorOf 



They gire the bat> to us. 

We gire the hats to you. 
They give the hats to them. 



And if, as I said in speaking of the singular number, we omit 
the preposition, the foregoing phrases must be expressed as 
follows : 

EgUno, or Elleno ci danno i capp611i, <v 

or > They give us the hats. 

Eglino, or Elleno Me danno icappfcJli, J 

Noi vi diimo i cappilli, | We give j/ou the hats.1 

Eglino, or Elleno danno loro i cappelli, | They give them the hats- 

Objective Case; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons: noi, ci or ne, 
us, voi or vi, you, loro, li or gli, them (niasculine) , loro, or le, 
them {feminine). Examples : 



Eglino, or Elleno imano noi, 

Noi amidmo voi, 

Eglino, or Elleno amano loro. 



They love vs. 
We love you. ' 
They love them. 



Then, again, we may say,'using the other pronouns, ci, t^e, vi, 
li, gli, le: , 



Eglino, or Elleno ci dmano, 

or \ They love us. 



} 



Eglino, or Elleno ne dmano, 

Noi vi amiamo, | We love you. 

Eglino, vr Elleno li v^dono, I They see them. \ ^^^^^ 

Eglino, or Elleno (^/i dmano, I They love fAem. ) 

Eglino, or Elleno le dmano, | They love them. fem. 

Here, obser\'e, loro stands for them, in both the masculine and 
feminine gender. Then, there is something to be said about li 
and gli, which are of the masculine gender only. I have already 
shown the difference between il and lo,] in the objective Case 



XVIII.] 



OF PRONOUNS. 



193 



singular ; and there is a similar difference to be noticed here 
between li and gli. In the feminine we see that we may 

w use either loro or le ; and, in the masculine, either lorOf 
li, OT gli. Li must be used when the pronoun comes before a 
verb that begins with a consonant, as in the above example 
of li vedono, they see them: gli must be used when the 
pronoun comes before a verb that begins w'ith a vowel, as in 
the above example of gli dmano, they love them ; and, also, 

^ when the pronoun comes before a verb that begins with an s 
immediately followed by a consonant ; as, gli sfdsciano, they 
unbind them. — We see that, in the objective, our us may be 
translated by either of the words noi, ci, or ne, the same as in 
the dative, Ne will require a separate notice; (See Para- 
graph 124.) Let us now take some examples of the one 
remaining case, in the plural, namely, the 



Ablative Case; 1st, 2d, and 3d persons: da noi, from 
us, da voi, from you, da loro, from thgm. — Here there is but 
the single pronoun for each of the three persons, as in the sin- 
gular number. Examples : 



Eglino, or Elleno ricevono da 

noi, 
Noi riceviamo da voi, 
Eglino, or Elleno ricevono da. 

loro J 



They receive /?-om ns. 

We receive/;- (MB you. 
Tltey receive /ro?K them. 



119. The next thing to be noticed is the pronoun si, which 
is mentioned in Etymology, Paragraph 39, and v/hich serves 
to represent all our words oneself, himself, herself, themselves. 
This word is, as we have seen in Paragraph 39, spelled se, in 
the possessive and ablative, and either se or si in the dative and 
objective Cases. Examples : 



To speak of oneself. 
He speaks of himself. 
She speaks of herself . 
They speak of themselves. 



Possessive. 




Parlare di se, 




Egli parla di se, 




Ella parla di se, 




Eglino. or Elleno 




parlano di se, 


Dative. 






Dare a se. 




or 




Davsi, 



} 



K 



To give to oneself. 



194 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Egli (Id a set 

or 
Fgli 51 (fa, 

T.Uti Ah a $e, 
or 

£Klino, or Ellenn 
danno a se, 
or 

Eglino, or Elleno 
si danno, 



Objective. 

Vcdtre i<?, 

or 
Vedirsi, 

Egli vede sf, 

or 
Egli si vede, 

Ella vede se, 

or 
Ella si vede, 

Eglijio, or Elleno 
vedono 56, 
or 

Eglino, or Elleno 
si vedono, 

Ablative. 

RicC'vereda se, 

Egli ric6ve da se, 

Ella ricere da se, 

Eglino, or Elleno ric^vono da se, 



I He gives to himttlf. 
1 



i 



} 

1 



She gives to herself. 



They give to themselves. 



To see oneself. 
He sees himself. 
She sees herself 

They see Ihemstlves. 



► To receive /rom oneself. 
He receives/roffl himself. 
She receives /rom herself. 
They receive /rom themselves. 



The word si or se is, also, sometimes employed in the sense of 
one another 01 each other : as, 



Senza aver cn6re di palesirsi 
I'amore cbe si portavano, &c. 

SoA. N. 

Se tali f6ssero tctti i doni che gl- 
comini si fanno, &c. 

D. Ca. G. 



Withont havin? conrasre lo make 
known to one another the love 
that they bore each other. 

If such were all the gifts which 
men make one another. 



120. As to the pronouns esso, essa, essi, esse ; stesso, siessay 
stessif stesse ; and medcshno, medcsima, 7nedtsimi,7nedesime ; 
as these never change their form to denote case, it would be 
superfluous to notice them here again at length. Sufficient has 



XVIIL] OF PRONOUNS. W5 

been said of them rn their Etymology, for which see Para- 
graphs 37, 40, and 41. 

121. But it will be necessary to refer to some of the fore- 
going pronouns, for there are yet some things to be explained as 
regards them. And, first, it will be observed, that the word noi 
answers to both of our words we and ?<5 ; and, also, the word 
voi answers to both our words ye and you. The word ye is, 
now-a-days, old-fashioned in our language ; though, strictly 
speaking, it ought to be used in the nominative Case. Observe, 
also, that the pronouns mi, me, ti^ thee, lo, him, la, her, ci, us, 
ne, us, vi, you, si, oneself, himself, &c,, may all, when imme- 
diately followed by a verb beginning with a vowel, drop their 
final vowel and take the apostrophe. The pronoun ci, how- 
ever, admits of this abbreviation only when the verb coming 
after it begins with an i. The pronoun loro is very commonly 
written and pronounced lor. Exam-pies : 



Voi ??^' in£;aiiiiate, 
lo V inganno, 
Jo I' amo, 
lo V amo, 
Tu c' inganni, 
EllaTi'abbaglia, 
Es^li u' inganna, 
Eglino s' ingaanano, 
lo lor di^di, 



You deceive me. 

I deceive ikee. 

I love kirn. 

I love her. 

Tliou deceivest us. 

She dazzles us. 

He deceives you. 

They deceive themselves., 

I gave to them. 



The pronouns mi, ti^ lo, and la, also, are, at times, abbreviated 
in the same way, when they come before the words ho, I have ; 
hai, thou hast; ha, he, she, or it has ; hanno, they have : as, 



lo V ho detto, 
Tu m? hai detto, 
Ella V ha veduto, 
Eglino V hanno veduto, 



I have told thee. 
Thou hast told me. 
She has seen him. 
They have seen her. 



I explained, in speaking of the objective Case singular, thfe 
diflference between lo and il, as used in the sense oi him; and 
here we see that lo may be employed, in the objective Case, 
before a verb beginning with a vowel; but it must, then,, 
always drop the o, as in the above example. La here drops 
the a also, as lo does the o ; but the plural of la, namely, le, 
must never be abbreviated in this way : for, though we may say, 
V amo, meaning, I love him, and V amo, meaning, I love her, 

k2 



196 SYNTAX [Chap. 

we cannot say Z' amo, meaning, I love them, in the plural 
feminine ; but we must say, le amo, preserving the e of le, for 
fear of confounding the singular with tiie plural. 

122. We have seen that, in several instances, the Italians 
have two or more of these personal pronouns, in one and the 
same number, case, and person, to answer to only one pronoun 
in our language. In the dative Case^ singular, there are, 

a me or m\y for onr to me or me. 

a te or ti, for our to thee or thee, 

a lui or p/i, for oar to him or him. 

a lei or le, for our to her or Ittr. 

In the objective Case, singular, there are, 

me or mi, for our me. 

te or ti, for onr thee, 

/t(i, il or lo, for our Aim. 

lei or la, for our Aw. 

Then, again, in the dative Case, plural, 

a not, ci or ne, for our to vs or vs. 
a voi, or ti, for oar to you or j/ou. 

Aiid in the oljective Case, plural, there are, 

no?, ci or ne, for oar us. 

voi, or li, for our sret4. 

/oro, ii, or gli, for our fAcm {Masculine). 

lore, or fc, for our them {Feminine). 

And, as relates to the pronoun sz, we find, in the dative Case, 
a se, or si, for our to oneself, himself, &c. ; in the objective 
Case, se, or si, for our oneself &c. 

The question is, then, what difference is there between saying, 
in the dative singular, a me, a te, a lui, a lei, and mi, ti, gli, 
le • in the objective singular, 7ne, te, lui, lei, and mi, ti, il or 
lo, le ; in the dative plural, a noi, a voi, and ci or ne, vi - in 
the objective plural, noi, voi, loro, and ci or ne, vi, li or gli, 
le ; in the dative, a se, and si; in the objective, se, and sit 
JSoTV, either manner of expression will do in Italian. We 
may say, Egli da il cappello a me, he gives the hat to me, or, 
Egli mi da il cappello, he gives j?ie the hat ; and so forth, with 
all the rest of the pronouns just before mentioned. Observe, 



XVIII.] OF PRONOUNS. 197 

at the same time, that if, in Italian, we ase any preposition 
B before the pronoun, whether it be dija, or da, which are called 
the signs of the possessive, dative, and ablative Cases, or any 
other preposition ; in every case where the preposition is so used, 
we must employ W2e, te, lui, lei, noi, voi, loro, se ; and never 
mi, ti, gli, le, il, lo, ci, ne, vi, li, gli, si: the examples I have 
given in both numbers, and throughout all the Cases, will be a 
sufficient illustration of this. But, to return to the question of 
the difference before mentioned, we must mind that, though 
the Italians may use which they please of the two ways of 
expression : 

Egli da il capp^llo a me, t He gives the hat to mc, 

or, I or, 

Egli mi da il cappcllo, I He gives me the hat. 

lo do il cappeilo o fe, | 1 give the hsit to thee, 



or, I or, 

lo ti do il cappello, I I give thee the hat. 

Ta dai il cavdllo a lui, | Thou givest the horse to him. 

or, ^ I or, 

Tu gli dai il cavallo, I Thou givest him the horse, 

Tu dai il libro o lei, i Thou givest the book to her. 

or, I or, 

Tu le dai il libra, 1 Thou givest her the book. 

Although, when they do not wish to lay any particular em- 
phasis on the pronouns me, thee, him, her, in their language, 
the Italians may use whichever of these forms they please ; yet 
when there is any emphasis intended, they use me^ te, lui, lei, 
and not mi, ti, gli, le. In saying, in our language, he gives 
the hat to me, and, he gives me the hat ; we may, in using 
either of these, by the means of laying an emphasis on the 
word me, express the meaning that it is to oneself in parti- 
cular, or not to some one else, that the hat is given. The 
English have, here, but the one pronoun, me, whether the 
preposition be used or not ; and our emphasis must consist in 
the mere stress of the voice. But the Italians make the 
distinction by the means of the difference in the word itself, 
and not by the mere manner of uttering it. 

He gives the hat to me, i Egli da il cappello a me, 

or, J or, 

He gives me the Im'-j I Egli mi da il capp611o. 



198 SYNTAX [Chap. 

The niennincj here, in lx)th languages, may be just the 
same, in cither of the two forms. In Italian, as in Eng- 
lish, either plira.-e may be used to signify the simple fact 
that the hat is given to ?(5. Yet, mind, if we wish to ex- 
press the idea of exclusion, if we mean to say " the hat 
is ghwn to mf. in partiatlar, and not to somebody or any 
body else" ; then, in Italian, our mere stress of voice, in- 
dependent of the form of words, is not sufficient: we must 
say, Egli da il cappello a me, and not, Egli mi da ii cappello. 
The " J"-[/li Wii da il cappello*' would be insufficient to 
express the idea of cxclvsion or distinction, whatever emphasis 
the speaker or writer might lay on the " mi." ' I need not 
take up room in giving examples with the other pronouns; for 
precisely the same principle applies to show the difference 
between the use of a te and te, a lui and gli, a lei and le ; 
and, in the dative plural, it is just the same with a noi and 
ci or 716 J a voi and vi. It is also just the same in the objective 
Case, in both numbers: in the singjdar, wherein we see me 
contrasted with mi, to with ti, lui with il and loy lei with la ; 
and in the plural, wherein we see noi contrasted with ci and 
ne, voi with vi, loro with li and gli (masculine), lota with le 
(feminine). Here, in the objective, we must, if we intend, as^ 
before said, emphatically to particularize the person or per- 
sons represented by the pronoun, or to express the idea of 
exclusion of others, we must employ me, te, lui, lei, noi, voif 
loro; and not ?ni, ti, il or lo, la, ci or we, vi, li or gli, le. 
These observations apply, equally, to the pronoun si, as to 
which we see, in the dative, se contrasted with si; and, in 
the objective, se with si again. Tlie following examples will 
serve to illustrate the principle above explained : 

Me scelse amor, te la fortuna, &c. j Love chose me, fortune thee. 

Tas. G. L. 



or come 

CoBosci me, cb' io te nun conosca ? 

Pot. T. 



Now liow (lost thou know me; fori 
do not know thee? 



Io amo molto piu lui che egli non ama me. i I love him much more than be loves 

Boc. D. I me. 

Ch'aniefa,nona?fi,concessaIaface, &c. J Forti me, not to Aer, was graated^the 

Ta8. a. I torch. 



XVIIL] OF PRONOUNS. 199 

I 



Non la perder6ddn(lola a te. I I sball not lose her in giving her to 

Boo. D. I thee. 



Lascia la cura a me, dicea Gradasso. I Leave the car*: to me, said Gradasso. 

Aiu. o.r. I 

Quest' e la terra destinata onoi. | This is the land destined tows, 

Car.E. 



II cavaliere ha offeso voi, che mi 
siete pill cara di me medesinio. 

GOL. C. 

Ne si accorse che faceva se d6bole, 
toglieudosi gli amici. 

Mac. p. 



The gentleman has offended yov, who 
^re more dear to me than myself. 

Nor did he perceive that he made 
/HW)st(/weak, by depriving himself 
of his friends. 



In these examples, it is clear that the pronouns we, te, lui, lei, 
noi, voi, and se, are either used in a sense of exclusion as to 
any other than those particular persons which they represent, 
or, are so employed as to mean that those persons which they 
represent are spoken of with some degree, more or less, of 
emphasis. Grammarians have not noticed that this distinc- 
tion exists, also, as relates to the pronoun loro, compared with 
other pronouns having the same signification ; yet it is certain 
that, in the objective plural, there is the same difference to be 
observed between loro, and li or gli (masculine), and loro, and 
Ze (feminine). For example : lo vidi Zwi quando voi vedesti 
Joro, I saw him when you saw them ; lo amo lui, ma non 
amo loro, I love him, but I do not love them: here, the distri- 
butive and emphatic meanings that are intended would not 
be at all expressed by saying, lo il, or lo, vidi quando voi li 
vedesti; lo Tamo, ma, non gli amo. Here the gli and li, in 
the sense of them, would be quite as insufficient to the sense 
in the plural, as the il, lo, and V would be in the singular. In 
the dative plural, there is but the one pronoun, for both genders, 
as in English, whether with the preposition or not ; namely, 
a loro or loro, to them or them. Yet here, also, the same 
nicety of distinction is observable. For example : date questo 
libro a noi, I'altro a loro, give this book to us, the other to 
them. Here, though there is but the one word loro for the 
dative, either with or without the preposition, and though it 
might do, here, to omit the preposition before loro; yet, the 
distributive idea, as respects the them, would be much more 
clearly expressed, in the Italian, as in our language, by saying 



200 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



a loro, to them, than by saving loro, them. — Whenever two 
of these personal pronouns, in the dative or objective Case, 
have one of the conjunctions e and o, or, or either, or lie, nor, 
or neither, between them ; tlien we must employ me, te, lui, 
lei, not, voi, loro, sc ; and not the other pronouns before 
mentioned as contrasted with these : as, 



E^H diede questo a mr c a te, 

Noi amianio lui e /ci, 

Egli diede questo o a me, o a te, 

'iio'\ aruidino o lux o hi, 

Egli non dicde questo ni a me n6 a te, 

Noi non amiainu ne lui, n^ lei. 



He i;ave this to me and to thee. 

We love him and her. 

He gave this either to me or to thee. 

We love either him or her. 

He gave thisneillier to me. nor to thee. 

"VVe love neither him nor her. 



And so on with the other pronouns, in the dative and objective 
Cases, 7202, voi, loro, se. 

123. By some of the foregoing examples it will have been 
observed, that the Italians, unlike us, frequently put the pro- 
noun before the verb which relates to it. The situation of me, 
te, lui, lei, noi, voi, loro, se, is commonly after the verb ; 
though this is only a general rule, with many exceptions, as 
practice and reading will teach. The pronouns mi, ti, gli, ley 
il, lo, ci, ne, vi, li ; these come always before the verb, 
except sometimes when they are used as conjunctive pronouns, 
which have yet to be spoken of. (See Paragraph 127.) 

124. The pronouns ne, ci, and vi, have other significations 
besides those in which I have used them in the foregoing 
examples. I must observe, as relates to ne, that this pronoun, 
when used in the sense ,of our us, is not one of ordinary use ; 
it is rather a poetical word, or one properly used only in what 
is called elevated style. Our word us, therefore, would, in 
familiar style, be more properly translated by ci than by 7ie. 
Ne has all the meanings of, of it, of them, for it, from, by, 
or with it or them ; and it means, very frequently, the same as 
our words off and away. The follovving are examples of its 
various uses : 



Ci5 ctenedAl'industria o la fortuna, 

So A. N. 



That which industry or fortune gives 

MS. 



Ne conobbe, n' accuse. 



Cab. E. | He knew us, he welcomed us. 



XVIII.] 



OF PRON^OUNS. 



201 



Perche crudo destino 

Ne disunisci tu, s'amor ne stringe ? 

Guar. P.P. 



colui ch' a te ne 'nvia. 



Pet. S. 



Dolce amico, non dubitarne. 

SoA. N. 

H p6polo andb ad incontiarli, ne uc- 
cise alcuni, &c. M UR. A. 

I' cielo ha voluto ricorapensarte«<?. 

SoA. N. 

Ne vesthono la meti di panni bian- 
chi. Mac.D. 

Fa abbassdto il regno de' Macedoni ; 
funne caccidto Antioco. 

Mac. P. 

Che volete che io ne faccia ? 

GoL. C. 

Allorch^ il vizio comincia a prender 
potere, e che il cuore n' ^ gia cor- 
rotto. SoA. N. 

Ed il re ne menb seco detti stdticbi. 

f 10. N. 



I 



Why, cruel destiny, dost thou separate 
ws, if love unites nsf 

He who sends us to thee, 

Sweetfriend, do not doubt o/i^ 

The people went to meet them, killed 
some of them. 

Heaven has been willing to recom- 
pense ihee for it. 

They dressed the half of them with 
white clothes. 

The kingdom of the Macedonians was 
debased; Antiochus was driven 
from it. 

What do you wish that I should do 
with it ? 

When vice begins to assyme power, 
and when the heart is already cor- 
rupted by (or with) it. 

And the king took of (or an-ai/) with 
him the said hostages. 



a and vi are very commonly used as adverbs, in the sense of 
our words here and there. Ci means here, or in this place ; 
aiid vij there, or in that place : as, 



Costoro mi ci fanno entrare per in- 
gannarmi. Boc. D. 

Io dird che vi ci Sbbia fatto venire 
per denari. Boc. D. 

Nella sua camera il mise, e dentro il 
vi serr5. Boc. D. 

E quella citta, crescendori la virtCi, 
cresceva in potenza. Mac. S. 



These people make me come in here 
to deceive me. 

I v/ill say that I have made you come 
Aere for money. 

She put him into her room, and locked 
him in there. 

And that city, virtue increasing there, 
increased in power. 



Though ci means both us and here^ and vi both you and 
there^ two cz's, or two vis^ the one in the adverbial sense, and 
the other as a pronoun, must never come immediately together. 
We must not say, Voi ci ci mandaste , you sent tis here ; nor, 
Noi vi vi mandammo, we sent you there. The coming toge- 
ther of the two ci's or vV& would offend the ear. And, there- 
fore, the Italians prefer that the two adverbs should, in such 

k5 



202 SYNTAX [Chap. 

caccs, exchange meanin'^s, and that ci should stand for there, 
and vi fur here ; and they would say, voi vi ci nianduste, noi 
ci vi mandamnio. The words ci and vi, as pronouns, some- 
times mean to yon, to him, to her, to it, to this, to that, to 
them, in the sense of as relates to, or with respect to, you, 
him, &c. SioNoii Bauueui gives these examples of ci thus 
used : 

PensMte a me ? I Did you think of me ? 

Si, ci ho pensDto, I Yes, I have thought of you. 

Pensertle n qutsto ? J Will yon think of this ? 

Ci peuserb, ' I will think o/ it. 

Literally translated, these are, to me, to you, to this, to if. 
The vi is very frequently used in the sense of to it, where we 
also should use the dative Case : as, 

La iiecessita lu constriuse a consent- I Necessity constrained him to consent . 
iruj. SoA.N. I to it. 



L' arJuita MV impresa. e V a\-ver- 
si6ne che t' ebbe sempre il re, &c. 

GiA. S. 



The dilficulty of the entTprise, and 
the aversion that the king always 
Lad to it. 



Ci and vi will again have to be noticed, in the Syntax of 
impersonal verbs, for which see Paragraph 268. 

125. In the Etymology of personal pronouns, Paragraph 38, 
I have made some observations, which are numbered from 
1 to 10, as to the employment of some words, other than those 
which I have here been speaking of, as personal pronouns; 
and 1 there noticed, also, various ways of spelling some of the 
pronouns to which tha«foregoing Paragraphs of Syntax relate. 
I must here call the reader's attention to some further observa- 
tions, relative to certain irregularities in the use of some pro- 
nouns. These irregularities consist in some pronouns being 
used in Cases to which, according to grammatical arrange- 
ment, they do not strictly belong. ' 
1st. Lui and lei may, as we have seen, be employed in the 
dative, in the sense of to him, to her, using, always, the 
preposition a before them. If we were to omit the preposi- 
tion, then, as before said, we must not use hii and lei; but 
gli and le. In old authors, however, this rule is not ob- 
served in every instance, as may be seen in these examples: 



I 

XVIIT.] OF PRONOUNS. 203 

Mft per dar lui esperienza pieua, &c. J But to give him full experience. 

Dan. Inf. 



Ond* io risposi iei. Dan.Pur. | Therefore I replied /o Aer, 

ra'inganni. I I think, said 
Dan. Inf. I ceivest me 



lo credo, diss' io Zui, che tu ra'inganni. I I think, said I to him, that thou de- 



2d. Lui and lei are used after the word come or siccome, 
when that word is intended to have the meaning of our 
word like. As : 

Costoro, che erano, siccome Zui, ma- | Those, who were, like him, raali- 
liziosi, &c. Boc. D. | cious. 

Io vorrei che voi fussi ingannate come J I would wish that you were deceived 
lei. Mac. C. | like her. 

The same may be said of the pronouns me, te, and loro. 
But, if the come or siccome be not intended, as in the two 
examples given, in the sense of our words like to, to express 
similitude or resemblance between persons or things, and 
if it mean the same as our word as ; then we must employ 
the pronouns in the nominative Case. As; 

Trovaadosi egli in Pavigi in povero t Finding himself in Paris in a poor 
- stato, come egli il piii del tempo condition, as he lived the greater 

diraorava, &c. Boc. D. I part of the time. 



Se io avessi cosi bella cotta come 
ella, sarei altresi sguardata come 
ella. Nov. Ant. 



If I had as fine a gown as she, I should 
be as much stared at as she. 



3d. In apostrophizing, or speaking of oneself or of another 
in an exclamatory way, the pronoun representing the person 
who is the subject of the exclamation, must, in Italian, be in 
the objective Case, and not in the nominative : we must 
say. Oh felice me! Oh happy ??ie / Oh felice lui! Oh 
happy he ! and so on, with the other pronouns, te, lei, noi, 
voi, loro. In our language me is the only pronoun that, 
in this case, we can use in the objective Case ; for, while 
we say, happy me! we cannot say, happy him! happy 
her ! &c. ; but happy he I happy she ! 

4th. Me, ie, lui, lei, and loro, are, also, sometimes used in 
another instance in which they seem clearly to have a ?zo- 
minative signification ; namely, when the verb essere, to, 
be, comes between two pronouns, the verb essere being 



204 SYNTAX [Chap. 

used to express the person represented by the one pronoun, 
as being the same as tliat represented by the other. As, 
Credendo ch* io fossi tc, mi ha con un bastone tulto rotto; 
thinking tl)at / was thou (or, mistaking ?He for thee), he 
has bruised me all over with a stick. Boc. D. 
5th. The pronoun gli is employed in the dative plural, in the 
sense of loro, to them, in the masculine gender. As : 

Tutto i1 patse, che il SoJdnno gli I All the country, wMch tke Sultan had 



avea renduto. G. Vil. S. 

I Florentini non si mossono, bencliii 
grave <7/i fosse roltrogglo de' Pisani. 

M. Viu S. 



restored lo ihem (the Saracens). 

The Florentines did not bestir them- 
selves, oltllolt^h the affront of the 
Pisans was gnevous to thtm. 



The pronoun U, also, may sometimes be found used in the 
same sense. 
Cth. Gli or li may be found in some authors, in the feminine 
gender, singular number, meaning to her. As: 



Ci6non ^ra avenuto per coiTotta inten- 
zione della Rcgina, ma per forzadi 
mr'ie che yli erano state fatte. 

M. ViL. S. 



That had not happened throu;;h wicked 
intentions of the Queen, but by the 
force of witchcrafts that had been 
practiced on her. 



7th. Li is sometimes used instead of r/li, in the dative sin- 
gular, masculine, meaning to him. As : 

Apparve per visione aRubertOjd'cen- J He appeared by a vision to Rabert, 
doZ», &c. G. ViL. S. I saying to him. 

Domr idol/t poi se via c'era, &c. I He «'iea asked him if there was a 

Ari. O. F. I w ay. 

8th. Gli or li, as used in the sense of to them, in the femi- 
nine gender, are sometimes met with in old authors ; but 
such use is condemned as bad in grammar. 

9th. The pronoun ella, she, is sometimes used by the poets in 
other Cases than the nominative. Auiosxo has, memoria 
d'e//a, memory of Ac?'; instead of, memoria di lei. Then, 
again, elle, which, as I have said in the obsen'ation under 
Paragraph 38, stands for tlleno, in the nominative, is 
sometimes used by the poets in other Cases. Daxte has, 
con ELLE, with them ; instead of, C07i loro. 

10th, One thing should be well observed, as respects the 
pronouns lui, lei, and loro. These pronouns ought never, 



XVIII.] ' OF PRONOUNS. 205 

strictly speaking, to be used in the nominative Case : they 
should be used in the sense of /im, her, them; and not in 
that of he, she, they. In modern Italian writing this rule 
is observed, and our he, she, they, are expressed by egli, ella, 
eglino, or tlle?io, or by the other pronouns, esso, essa, essi, or 
esse. But the writers of former times did not observe this 
rule; neither do the Italians of the present day, as far as 
respects conversation. We shall find lui, lei, loro, em- 
ployed in the nominacive in most writers of an early date ; 
and such is the force of h abit, that it would seem ! ike affecta- 
tion to use egli, cUa, eglino, or elleno, in common conversa- 
tion in Italy. Lui, lei, loro, may therefore, as far as relates 
to speaking, he used in the sense of our he, her, they, 
11th. In the Syntax of adjectives, there will be another dif- 
ference between the languages to point out, as respects the 
use of the pronoun. 

126. There remains one thing more to notice respecting the 
personal pronouns, which is, their use in the capacity of 

Conjunctive Pronouns. 

127. Personal pronouns only are those which are called 
conjunctive ■ and they a'e so called because they are liable to 
be joined together, either with one another, or with some of 
the inflexions of the verbs. In some of the examples I have 
already given,, there are instances of this conjunctive capacity 
of the personal pronouns. Those properly called conjunctive 
are the following: 7ni, ti,Jo, la, gli, le, li, ci, vi, si, ne. The 
Italians call them affissi, on account of their being frequently 
affixed, or joined, to one another or to other words. 

128. To explain the whole of the practice as relates to these 
pronouns, when conjunctive, would require much room. It is 
a matter that cannot, in every case, be reduced to rule, and 
principle has very little to do with it. What I shall omit to 
notice, will consist of nothing more than certain points in prac- 
tice, which may be easily learned by strict attention in the 
course of reading Italian books. To understand the meaning 
of these pronouns as respects their Cases, is the main object to 
have in view in studying them. Without understanding that, 



206 SYNTAX [Chap. 



the pronouns, wlien joined with one another or with otlier 
words, might causo great puzzling. But, if we once well under- 
stand tlie Cases, the various manners oHoining together pronouns 
and other words can very seldom make us hesitate as to the 
meaning intrnded Mark the following observations. 

1st. These jironouns are not always, when considered as con- 
ju7ictive, joined to one another, or to other words, in such a 
way as to form only one word of two or more words : the pro- 
nouns vii, ti, sif ciy vi, often come two of them immediately 
next to each other without being joined in one word. As: 



Tn mi li present!, 
lo mi ti pr«9ento, 
E^li ti •"•« presenta. 
Noi ci vi prebeiitianio, 
Voi vi ci prenentitp, 
Egli ci si presen'n, 
JEgli f« si presentn, 
Eglino ci si pre^entano, 
Ei;lin(i vi .vi preseataiio, 
lo mi vi present©, 
Egli mi si presenta, 
Tu ci ti prespnti, 
Egli ci li presents, 



Thou presentcst thyself to me. 
I present myself to thee. 
He presents himself to thee. 
Vt't present onrseltes to you. 
You present yourselves lo us. 
He presents himself to us. 
He presents himsdf to you. 
They present themselves to us. 
They present themselves •to you. 
1 present myself to you. 
He presents himself to me. 
Thou presenteot thyself to us. 
He presents us to you. 



We see, here, that the placing of the words is very different ia 
the one language from what it is in the other : iu mi ti jpresenti, 
is, literally, thou thyself to me prcsentest ; and so on, with the 
rest. \Vith respect to the order in which these pronouns 
should stand, it is obsen'ed byBEMBO, that ti ought not to 
stand before mi, neither should si stand before mi, ti, ci, or vi: 
so that we must not say ti ini, but 7ui ti; not si mi, si ti, si ci, 
si vi, but 7ni si, ti si, ci si, vi si. It must be borne in mind, 
always, that the words ci and vi are adverbs, as well as prO' 
7WUJIS : 

Egli CI si presenta, j He present*; himself hkhk. 

Egli VI si presenta, I He presents himself th^re. 

Taking the ci and vi here in their sense as pronouns, the ci se, 
vi si, would mean himself to us, himself to you, as we have 
seen in the foregoing examples. 

2d. The inflections of the verbs to which the pronouns are 
most commonly joined, are, the infinitive mode, the imperative 
mode, and the participle present. As; 



XVIII.] 



OF PRONOUNS. 



207 



Atnnrnjf, 

Fiirlar/i, 

Ingaimarci, 

Vederii, 

Vindicar.'ii, 

Aniai7o, 

Parlar(;/j, 

Ingannar/a, 

Parlarie, 

Veder/e, 

Vendicarh', 

Pailarue, 

Amatemi, 

Parlatef/h", 

Vedete/o, 

IngannateZi, 

Aniandonii, 

Parlaiido<i, 

Ingannandocf, 

VedendoDi, 

Vindicandosi, 

Amdiido/a, 

Parlando<//i, 

Incanndiido/a, 

Parlaado/e, 

VedendoZc, 

VendicdndoZi, 

Parlandowe, 



To love me. , 

'I'o speak ^o t/ife. » 

To deceive us. 

To sec you. 

To vindicate oneself, himself, &c. 

To love /urn. 

To speak to him. 

To deceive htr. 

To speak to her. 

To bee </teHi (lem.) 

To viKdicate them (masc.) 

To speak of it, of him, &c. 

Love me. 

Speak to him. 

See him. 

Deceive them. 

Loving vie. 

Speaking <o thee. 

Deceiving us. 

Seeing you. 

Vindicating oneself, himself, &c. 

Loving him. 

Speaking to him. 

Deceiving her. 

Speaking to her. 

Seeing ihem (fem.) 

Vindicating them (masc.) 

Speaking of it, of him, &c. 



When the pronoun is affixed to a verb in the infinitive mode, 
the final e of the infinitive must always be dropped : thus, we 
must say, amarmi, parlartiy &c. as in the foregoing examples; 
and not, amaremi, parlareti. — x'Vlthough it is generally with 
the infinitive and imperative modes, and the participle present, 
that the pronouns are thus joined, there is no such thing as a 
rule as to what inflections of the verb do and what do not admit 
of the pronoun being joined to them. The poets join the pro-, 
noun to any inflection of the verb they please ; and all that need 
be said to the learner is, that in prose-writing the liberty of 
thus using the pronoun is very much restricted, compared to 
what it is in poetry. 

3d. Whenever mi, tiy ci, vi, si, are followed hy the pronouns 
lo, la, gli, le, li, ne • then the formei; must change their final 
i into e, and be spelled me, te, ce, ve, se : as, 



Ta me lo mandi, 
lo te la piomelto, 
Egli segli presenta, 
Voi ce lo presentate. 



TIiou sendest him to me. 
I promise her to thee. 
He presents himself to him. 
You present him to us. 



208 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Jo r^/edar^, 
Vol tilt li dorcle, 
Ella ce ne parib, 
lo re ne parlerb, 



I will give thfm lo you (fem.) 
You owe Ihtm to me (masc.) 
She ipoke to us of it. 
I will speak to you of it. 



Here we see that the pronouns me and /o, te and /a, &c., are 
not joined together so as to form one icord^ though they stand 
immediately next to each other. But, if these pronouns were 
to come aft2r a verb, they should be joined together; the 
first of them must be joined to the verb, and the three words, 
the verb aid the two pronouns, muat be all joined in one: 



as. 



MandatfRif/o, 

lo non vo' dir/e/a, 

Ei uon Toleva presentarsej/i, 

Mandaiidoce/o, 

JDandoreif, 

Datewf/j, 

Vol doTcte parlarcfnf, 

Potete asbicurnnenf, 



Send him to me. 

I will not Rive her to thee. 

lie would not present himtelfto him. 

Sending him to vs. 

Giving them to you (fern.) 

Give them to me (masc.) 

You ought to speak (o us of it. 

You may assure yourtelf o/it. 



Ce and re, when used as adverbs, are subject to the same 
rule: as, 



lo ce lo menai, 

Voi re la menaste, 

lo non poteva ritenerce/o, 

Toi non potete ritenC-rve/a, 



I hd him here. 

You led her there. 

I conld not keep Aim here. 

You canuotkeep her there. 



4th. The e of ne, and the o of lo, are frequently dropped, 
when one of the other pronouns comes before ne or lo, the two 
pronouns being joined together: men, ten, sen, cen, ven, met, 
tel, sel, eel, vel, instead of, mcne, tcne, sene, cene, vene, mtlo, 
ttlo, selo, celo, velo ; as in the following examples : 



Rispose 11 buon n6mo, io vel dird. 

Boc. D. 

Ma se sua guida il fa, sel fa signore. 

Ari. O. F. 



The good man replied,! will tell it to 
you. 

But if she makes Lim ber guide, she 
makes him a master to herself. 



The pronoun lo is thus frequently curtailed when joined to the 
participle present, without there being any other pronoun pre- 
ceding it : as, 



Avendoi prima ammacstrato e insfriitto. 

Abi.O. F. 



Having first taught atd instructed 
Attn. 



And lo is frequently joined to the negative non, not ; and then 
the final n of the 7ion is omitted, and also the o of lo ; as, io 



XVIII.] 



OF PRONOUNS. 



209 



nol vidi, I did not see him; instead of, io non lo vidi. When 
lo, abbreviated in this way, comes immediately before a verb, 
beginning with an h or with a vowely the abbreviated lo takes 
an apostrophe over it ; as, io veV ho detto, I have told it you ; 
io ceV ho condotto, I have conducted Jdm here; io ^e^avrei 
portato, I would have brought it to thee. 

5th. The pronoun gli, in its capacity of conjunctive pronoun, 
is used in the sense of to her, as well as that of to him ; and 
when gli is joined to any one of the pronouns lo, la Ze, li, ne, 
which is frequently the case, then, for the sake of harmony, the 
gli is spelled glie : as. 



Jo glielo diedi, 

Diteglielo, 

Voi gliela mandaste, 

MundHegtielo, 

Hoi gliele mandammo, 

M&ndkrgliele, 

Voi glieli deste, 

Dandoglieli, 

Eglino glicne p^rlano, 

Pai]^tegliene, 



I gave it to him, or to her. 
Give it to him, or to her. 
You sent her to him, or to her. 
Send her to him, or to her. 
We sent them to him, or to Aer. 
To send them to him, or to her. 
You gave them to him, or to her. 
Giving them to him, or to her. 
They speak to him, or to her, of it. 
Speak to him, or to her, of it. 



We sometimes see the gli, in such cases, separate from the 
other pronoun, and without the intermediate e ; as, gli lo 
instead oi glielo, gli la instead of gliela, &c. j but this is not 
common. The lo and ne are, also, subject to contraction ; as, 
gliel diede, instead of, glielo diede; glien parlano, instead of 
^gliene parlano. And if, as mentioned in the last observa- 
tion, the I or ??, joined to the glie, come immediately before a 
verb that begins with an h, or with a vowel, then there must 
be an apostrophe over the I ot n ; as ; 



Io gliel' ho detto, 

Io glien' aveva parlato, 



1 



I have told it to him. 
I had spoken to him of it. 



6th. It not unfrequently happens, that the pronoun ne 
comes immediately after two other of the pronouns 7ni, ii, ci, 
vi, si; and, in such case, the one that comes next to the ne 
must terminate in e, and the first pronoun in i; as : 



Io mi te ne scuso, 
Egli uiseneduole, 



I excuse myself to thee for it. 
He complains to you of it. 



7th, The pronouns mi, ti, ci, vi, si, lo, la, le, li, ne, are 
sometimes written with their consonants doubled, mmi, tti, cci, 



210 



SYKTA Y 



[Cbap. 



vvi, ssi, Ihf lla, ilc, lit, nne. This happens in three ways. 
First, when any one of these arc joined to the end of an inflec- 
tion of a vcrh that consists of but one syllable ; as, dimmi 
qucsto, tell 7ne this; hofti vedi'ito, 1 have seen thee ; hacci 
condotto, he has conducted iis ; hart'i condotto, he has con- 
ducted you ; fassi maestro, he makes himself master ; hnnne 
un poco, I have a little nf it; da//o a lui, give it to him; 
ho//a veduto, I have seen her; ha//c condotte, he has con- 
ducted them; daZ/i a me, give them to me. Thus we see the 
pronouns mi, Zo,,and ne, spelled ?nmi, llo, luie, in the fallowing 
examples: 



Via, Pamela, i&mmi la mano. 

Gor,. C. 

Quale ^ la cagibne della tua palli- 
d^zza ? di//*ui ; &c. Boc. F. 

Dinne, Ergasto genlile, &c. 

Gha. p. F. 

Fu abhass.ito il re^no de' Macedoni 
(iinne racciato Antioco. 

Mac. p. 



1 



Come, Pamela, give me tby band. 



What is the cause of tby paleness ? 
Tell it to 03. 

Tell us, gentle Ergaato. 



The kinj^dom of the Macedonians 
was debased, Antiochos was drirea 
from it. 



Secondly, this is the case, whenever any of these pronouns are 
joined to the end of such inflections of the verbs as have an 
accent upon their ilnal vowel. The accent, we know, is on 
the third person singular of the past perfect of the indicative 
mode, and on the first and third persons singular of the future 
of the indicative mode. So we may say : avicUo, he loved, 
him, instead of Vamo ; amerollo, I shall love him, instead of 
Vamerb ; amcrallo, he Avill love him, instead of Vamera ; and 
so on with the other pronouns, ?ni, ii^ ci, vi, sz, /a, Ze, li, ne. 
But, the joining of the pronoun to these inflections of the verb 
is, it must be observed, more a poetical license than a thing 
of common practice. In the following examples, where we 
see miy lo, and si, spelled in this way, it is only for the sake 
of measure or rhyme: 



Mandommi il fratel luio. 



£ dirnZZo aaco a voi. 



Ari. O. F. 
Am. O. F. 



Lo ricoaobbe tosto che miro2Zo. 

Ari. O. F. 



She sent me my brother. 

And I will tell it to you also. 

He knew him as soon as he saw him. 



XVIII.] OF PRONOUNS. 211 

E, come pote meglio, presto armol/o. I And, as well as he could, he quickly 

Ani.O. F. I armed him. 

ed io seguUlo. Tas.G. h- | And I followed liim. 

Dal mar shingossi. Ari. O. F. | IJe removed Aimse// from tke sea. 

Here the more 'regular order would have been, mi mandb; lo 
diTo, lo miro, r armo, lo segui, si slungo. — The poets some- 
times use me, te, ce, ve, se, for the sake of rhyme, in cases 
where, strictly speaking^ mi, fi, ci, vi, si, should be used : as. 

Or vedi, se tu puoi 1' elmo Icvarmf. j Now see if thou canst take the helmet 

Ari. O. F. I from vie. 

Ariosto wrote levarme, to make this line rhyme with another 
ending in arme. — Sometimes, again, for the sake of rhyme, 
the poets leave out the final r of the infinitive of the verb, when 
a pronoun is joined to the end of it. Thus, Ariosto has 
provallo instead oi provarlo : 

avreitestimoni da /^j-oruZZo. ( I should have witnesses fit to prove 



Ari. O. F. j it. 

Of Possessive Pronouns* 

129. The Italians generally employ the definite article 
before the possessive pronoun. They do not say, simply, as we 
and the French do, mio libro, my book, tuo cavallo^ thy horse, 
suoi cani, Ms dogs ; but, il mio libro^ il tuo cavallo, i subi 
cani; which, literally translated, would be, the my hocik, the 
thy horse, the his dogs. So, they say : questo e il mio campo, 
this is 7ny field ; la raccolta del mio campo, the crop of my 
field ; io vo al mio campo, I go to my field ; voi vedete il mio 
campo, you see my field ; egli viene dal mio campo, he comes 

from, my field : that is, literally, the my field, of the my field, 
to- the my field, the my field, /rom tJie my field. Thus it must 
be, all through the piece, with the pronouns mio, ttoo, suo, 
nostro, vostro, loro ; the article and the pronoun always both 
agreeing in gender and mimber with the noun to which they 
are attached. 

130. I have not, in the Etymology of possessive pronouns 
(see Paragraph 43), introduced the article before the pronoun, 
at h\]. But the Italians generally do use the article in this way. 
The following are examples of the article and pronoun, in both. 
Genders and Numbers, and in all the Cases-: 



212 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



^Iasculine Gejcdeu. 
Sinyulai', 



Nom. // niio amicn, 
Po(&« Drl into ainicoi 
Dat. A I mio amico, 
Ol)j. // into nmico, 
Abl. Dal mio atnico, 



Mij frifnd. 
0/ mij friend. 
Tc mi/ friend. 
Aly ftiend. 
From my friend. 



Plural. 



Nom. / miei atnici, 

Poss. Z^^i or Z>e' mJtt amici, 

Dat. Ai or A' miii amici, 

Obj. / miii amici, 

Abl. Dai or Da^ mici amici, 



M'j friends, 
0/ my friends. 
To my friends. 
RJy friends. 
From my friends. 



Feminine Gender. 
Singular, 



JJom. La mia casa, 
Poss. Dtlld mia casa, 
Dat. Alia mia casa, 
Obj. La mia casa, 
Abl. JDalla mia casaj 



Kom. Le mie case, 
Poss. Delle mie case, 
Dat. Alle mie case, 
Obj. Le mie case, 
Abl. Dalle mie case, 



My house. 
0/ my house. 
To my home. 
My house. 
From my iioflse. 



Plural, 



My booses. 
Of my houses. 
To my houses. 
M'j houses. 
From »iy houses. 



And SO on, with tuo, thy, 5M0,his,her, or its, nostrOy our, vostro, 
your, lorOy their; as, il tuo amico, thy friend, i tubi amici, 
thy friends ; la tua casa, thy house, le tue case, thy houses ; 
il suo amico, his, her, or its friend, i subi amici, his, her, or its 
friends ; la sua casa, his, her, or its house, le sue case, his, her, 
or its houses; il nosiro amico, our friend, i nostri amici, our 
friends; la nostra casa, our house, le nostre case, our houses; 
il vostro amico, your friend, i vostri amici, your friends ; la 
vostra casa, your house, le vostre case, your houses ; il loro 
amico, their friend, i loro amici, their friends; la loro. casa, 
their house, le loro case, their houses, 

131. Here above we see that loro, which, in its capacity of 
personal pronoun, means they or them, as we have before seen, 
is also a possessive pronoun, meaning the same as our their 



XVIII.] OF 'pronouns. 213 

Lor Of it will be observed, never changes its form to denote 
gender or number, while mio^ tuo, sua, nostro, and vostro, 
do so. In order to express our their, the Italians use either 
loro, or the same word which stands for our his, her, or its, 
namely, silo ; and when suo is employed in the sense of lore, 
it changes its form to express gender and number, just the same 
as it does when used for the third person singular, his, her, or 
its. ,But, I must remark, here, that loro is more properly 
employed in the third person plural, than suo ; in some 
instances suo is preferred for the sake of harmony, as with the 
poets. But we shall see loro much more commonly employed 
in the sense of their, than S7W. To use suo, upon all occasions, 
would, besides, make the sense doubtful, as suo may relate to 
the singular as well as to the plural number of the person to 
whom possession is attributed. Soave, indeed, says that it is 
bad granwiar to use suo, sua, subi, sue, when the person to 
whom the possession is attributed is in the plural number: 
thus, he says, we should say, I genitori debbono amare 
i loro figli, parents ought to love their children; and not 
i subi figli. 

132. The article may be placed either before the pronou.i, 
as in the foregoing examples, or the article and pronoun may be 
separated by the noun's coming between them : thus, I may say, 
il mio amico, my friend, or, V amico rp,io ; i mici amici, my 
friends, or, gli amici miei; la mia casa, my house, or, la casa 
mia ; le mie case, my houses, or, le case mie : and so on with 
the other pronouns tuo, suo,nostro, vostro, loro. 

When the article comes, in such cases, immediately before 
the noun, it must, of course, be made to agree with the noun, 
according to the rules given under the head of Etymology. So, 
while I say, il mio amico, I must not say, il amico mio, but 
V amico mio, and while I say, i miei amici, I must not say, 
i amici miei, but gli amici mi6i. 

133. I have said that the custom of employing the article 
with the possessive pronoun is general: the article is not, how- 
ever, always so employed, as we shall see. To a certain ex- 
tent, the use or omission of the article may be required on 
grounds of principle ; but, according to practice, there are many 



214 SYNTAX [Chap. 

capos, in wliicli it may l)e either used or not, and in which it 
is difficult to give any fixed rule. Observe the following 
examples; in them we find a difference, and that difference 
may bo accounted for in prmctple : 

Qn*"!.!! «i i/ niio signorc. Bor. D. | This is my master. 

Qu&ndo lia txio cotuc c nostro si^nore. i When he shall he thy (toaster) as he 

I'kt. T. I is our master. 

r 

The distinction to be observed here is rather a nice one; 'yet 
there is a distinction. In these examples we see ilmio signore 
contrasted with tuo and nostro si(jnore. It seems that, when 
the article is used with the possessive pronoun, there are always 
some words to be understood besides what are expressed. It 
would seem that, in saying, questi ti il mio signore, what is 
meancd is, questi e V uomOy. or la persona, che b mio signore, 
this man is the man, or the person, who is my master. Now, 
the difference of sense intended between usine: and not usinsr 
the article is this, that, in saying, questi e il mio signore, there 
is some degree of exclusion of the idea that we have any other 
master than that of which one is speaking. The same dis- 
tinction is made in English, when, for example, we say, he 
was my master, or, he was a master of mine: in the first of 
these we intend no idea of there being any more than one 
master; but, in the second, the idea of there being more than 
the one may be understood, or not, according to circumstances. 
Somewhat analagous to this of the English is the sense in 
Italian when the article is or is not used. In the example, 
questi e il mio signore : here the master spoken of is mentioned, 
or, at least, is understood by implication, as being peculiarly 
or properly the master of the person speaking; although the 
idea of exclusion of other masters is not expressed. Then, 
again, in the example, quando fia tuo come e nostro signore, 
that is, when he shall be master of thee, or, shall have the 
'power of a master over thee, &c. : Petrarch did not mean, 
here, to attribute the title of master to one person exclusively , 
or to suppose it as properly belonging to the person of whom 
he was speaking. He merely intended to express the power or 
influence of a master ^ without anticipating the possession of 



XVIII.] OF PRONOUNS. 215 

that power or influence as exclusively or properly to belong to 
the person spoken of. Observe these further examples : 

Ma perchd tu se* mio amico, io la ti I But because thou art my friend, 1 will 
inseguero. Boc. D. I tcacli it to thee, 

Mostrando ch' ella fosse a casa di I Pretendinij that she was at the house 
suiii pareuti. Boc. D. I of A tr relations. 



I 



Cim6ne, cosi detto, e alquanti nobili 
gi6Tani richiesti che sitoi amici 
erano, &c. Boc. D. 



Cimone having thus said, and having 
requested some young nobles who 
were his friends. 



Io vi voglio dire ciocchi il vostro [ I wish to tell you what yonr friend 
amico mi fece stamdne. Boc. D, I did to me this morning. 

The three first of these four examples correspond with each 
other. The first of them we may compare with the last_, as we 
have done the two examples before given. The mio amico 
means the same as a friend of mine or one of my friends ; 
while the il vostro amico means, /' uomo, or, la persona ch' e 
vostro amico, the man, or the person who is your friend. 
Signor Barberi, who is the only grammarian in whose work 
I have seen this point properly noticed, says, " Suppose that a 
*' servant has several masters : in seeing one of those masters, 
*' ought he to say, questi e il mio padronel No, certainly; 
" because, in expressing himself thus, he would give it to 
** be understood that the person he means is the only mas- 
" ter that he has: he should say, therefore, questi c mio 
" padrone'' 

134. The article is not, generally, employed when the pro- 
noun relates to nouns of quality or kindred. The Italians 
say, sua maesta, his or her majesty ; vostra excellenza, your 
excellency; swa altezza, /izs or Aer highness ; and, mz'o padre, 
my father, tua madre, thy mother, suo fratello, his or her 
brother, sua sorella, his or her sister. The same with fglioj 
sou, figlia, daughter, zio, uncle, zia^ aunt, marito, husband, 
moglie, wife, cugino or cugina, cousin, cogndto, brother-in- 
law, cognata, sister-in-law. But this rule is by no means a 
strict one. We frequently meet with exceptions to it in prac- 
tice. Where the pronoun comes after the noun, let it be what 
noun it may, whether expressive of quality or relationship of 
zny kind, then the article must be employed : we may say, mio 



216 SYNTAX [Chap. 

fratcllo, or, il fratello mio, my brother; viio padre, or, il padre 
mio, my father. 

135. When a diminutive is used, as a noun expressive of 
kindred, then the article is generally employed : as, il mio fra- 
telh'no, my little brother, la tua soreliina, thy little sister. 

136. In using any of the nouns that express quality or 
kindred in the plural number, the article is almost always 
used : as, le vostre maesta, your majesties ; le vostre altezze, 
your highnesses ; i miei fratelli, my brothers; h /ue sorelle, 
thy sisters. 

137. When there is an adjective attached to a noun of 
kindred^ the article is almost always employed : as, la mia 
cara madre, my dear mother; iu which case, we may either 
put the article before the pronoun, and then the adjective 
before the noun, as in this example; or, we may turn the 
phrase, putting first the article, and then the adjective, with the 
pronoun following before the noun : as, la cara mia madre. 
We may also turn it in another way, and say, la madre mia 
cara. The former, however, is the most comn.on manner. 

138. Whenever the pronoun loro is employed with a noun 
of kindred, whether relating to the singular or plural number, 
the article must always be employed : as, le loro maesta, their 
majesties, il loro padre, their father, la loro madre, their 
mother, il loro fratello, their brother, &c. 

139. Vergani tells us, that if, instead of parfre, madrCf 
marito, moglie, fratcllo, sorclla, we make use of gemtSre, 
genitrlce, sposo, sposa, consurte, germ/ino, germdna, which 
are words of the same meaning, we must then employ the 
article. This is a general rule; but there are exceptions to it 
to be met with in practice. 

140. When we use the possessive pronoun in addressing our- 
selves to persons or things, the article is never to be employee*. 
So we must not say, come state, il mio amico ? How do you 
do, my friend? Oh, i mici fratelli, che fate ? Oh, my brothers, 
what are you doing ? but, come state, mio amico? Oh, miei 
fratelli, che fate ? and so forth. 

141. It is a very common practice with the Italians to make 
use of the personal pronouns lui, him, and lei, her, in the 



XVIIL] or PRONOUNS. 217 

possessive Case, in place of using the possessive pronouns suOf 
suay suoiy sue : as, vedo il frat^llo di lui, I see the brother of 
hintf instead of, vedo suo fratello, I see his brother ; vedo 
i frat^Ui di lui, I see the brothers of him, instead of, vedo i suoi 
frat611i, I see his brothers ; vedo la sor^lla di lei, I see the 
sister of her, instead of, vedo sua sorella, I see her sister ; 
vedo le sor^lle di lei, I see the sisters of her, instead of, vedo 
le sue sorelle, I see her sisters. And sometimes, though not 
so commonly, di me, di te, di noi, di voi, di loro, are used 
instead of the possessive pronouns mio, miti, mia, mie, tuo, 
tuSi, tua, tue, &c. As relates to the use of lui and lei in the 
possessive Case, instead of suo, suoi, sua, sue, Soave says, 
** We must take notice, that when the thing belongs to the 
** nominative, or subject of our discourse, we must always use 
" suo, suoi, sua, sue : as, Cdsare ama suo figlio teneram^nte, 
*' Cesar loves his son tenderly. But when there might be 
" ambiguity in using suo, we must use di lui : as, Tito ama 
*' C^sare e il figlio di lui, Titus loves Cesar, and the son of 
" him ; and not, ama Cesare e suo figlio, because this might 
*' mean that Titus loved his own son, not that of Cesar,** 
The same observation may be applied to lei. The preposition 
and pronoun di lui, of him, and di lei, of her, are sometimes 
placed between the article and the noun : as, il di lui figlio, 
la di lei figlia; which, literally translated, are, the of him son, 
the of her daughter ; instead of il figlio di lui, the, son of him, 
la figlia di lei, the daughter of her, 

142. The Italians have no separate pronouns to represent our 
mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. With the exception 
of the pronoun his, which does not vary in its form here, we 
have two sets of pronouns to express possession : namely, these 
just mentioned, and those ^V which we have before been speak- 
ing. But the Italians have but the one set of possessive pro- 
nouns, mio, tuo, suo, &c. In making use of mio, tuo, suo, &c. 
to express our mine, thine, his, &c., they do not use the article 
at all ; as : 

Questo carallo d mio, , This horse is mine. 

Quelln casa d tua, I That house is thine. 

Qsesti libri »ono tuoi, | ' These books are his. 



2i8 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



And so forth witli the other pronouns, itostro, vostro, loro. 
But, it is only when the verb to be is employed in tliis way, to 
point out or demonstrate, with our pronouns mine, thine^ &c. 
that the Italians can translate such phrases without the article. 
For example, it* I say, I have some wine in my cellar, but thou 
hast none in thhie : I must translate this by, lo ho del vino 
nellamia cantina, ma tu non ne hai nella tua ; and not in iuUy 
without the article. 

143. To express the phrases, a friend of mine, tivo friends 
of mine, and so forth, the Italians say : 



Vn mio amico, 
Due mici amici, 
Alcuni m'lii amici, 
Alqnanti mici amici, 
Piit mici amici, 
Molti mUi amici, 



A friend 0/ mine. 
Two frieodi! of mine. 
Some friends 0/ mine. 
Some fen friends of mine. 
More frienrls of mine. 
Many friends of mine. 



We may turn such phrases in another way, in both languages, 
and say, using the article in the Italian : 



One of my friends, 
Tno of my friends, 
Some of my friends, 
Some few of my friends, 
More of my friends, 
Many of my friends, 



Uno dei miii amici. 
Due dei miei amici. 
Alctmi dei mtii amici. 
Alquanti dei miei amici. 
Piu dti mici amici. 
Molti dti miti amici. 



And so on it would be, in translating our other pronouns, thine^ 
his^ hers, &c. 

When we use mine, thine, &c. after the preposition of, and 
a noun preceding has one of the demonstrative pronouns thit, 
that, those, before it ; in such case, the Italians express them- 
gelves as follows : 



This hat 0/ mine, 
Tliat house of thine. 
These clothes of his. 
Those friends of yours, 



Quest mio cappt-IIo. 
' Quella ttta casa. 
Questi su6i p6nni. 
Qnei vostri amici. 



And our words every, no, certain, when employed in such 
cases, are expressed as follows : 



Every friend of mine, 
Aohat of yours, 
Certain friends 0/ his, 



Ogni mio amico. 
Niuno vostro cappello. 
Ctrti sn6i amici. 



XVIII.] OF PRONOUNS. 219 

144, The pronouns mio, tuo, suo, nostro, vostro, loro, used 
with the article, have sometimes the meaning of my property, 
goods, or, substance, thy property, goods, or substance, &c. ; 
as: 



Spendo ilmio in metter tdvola, ed in 
onorSre i miei coKcittadini. 

Boc. D. 



I spend my wealth in keeping open 
table, and in treating my fellow- 
citizens. 



Vedi a cui io do inangiire il mio. i See to whom I give my substance to 

Boc.D. I eat. 

And these pronouns in the plural, with the article, i miei, 
iiuSi, isuoi, &c., are frequently used in the sense of oae's 
companions, soldiers, relations, or countrymen • as: 

L'oifese fatte a' subi nelle sjuerre di I Theinjuries done to ftis/^eo/^Ze in the 
Guascogna, &c. Fio. N. I wars of Gasgony. 

Uscirono dalla citta con molti de' j They wfent out of the city with many 
suLi. Dav. S, I of their soldiers. 

Con tutti i sudi entro in cammino. i He entered on his journey with all his 

Boc. D. 1 people. 

Mentre ragi6na a'siioi, &c. j While she speaks to her warriors. 

Tas.G.L. I 

Ccsi da' su6i tiadito mori ManfreHi. i Thus betrayed by his soldiers Man- 

GiA. S. 'I freddied. 

J 45. It very frequently occurs, in Italian, that the possessive 
pronoun is altogether left out, and the definite article alone 
stands to represent the idea of possession. This is sometimes 
the case in our language ; but, comparatively speaking, very 
seldom. We say, for example, he received a blow on ths 
head, he has a defect in the eye, he pulled him by the sleeve, 
I took him by the hand, the house is weak in the roof: mean- 
ing, his head, his eye, his sleeve, his hand, its roof. But we 
cannot, in our language, take much liberty in this way ; while, 
in Italian, the liberty is almost unbounded. The Italians say : 



Egli ha perduto la vista, 
Io lo feci colla mano, 
L' uomo i giunto colla moglie, 
Elladisse alia figlia, 



He has lost the sight. 

I did it with the hand. 

The man is arrived with the wife. 

She said to the daughter. 



Instead of, la sua vista, his sight, colla mia mano, with my 
hand, con sua moglie, with his wife, a sua figlia, to her 
daughter. Observe the following examples : 

l2 



220 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Tancredi uccide 1' anante drlla 
flglin61a. Boc. D. 

Bono tutti tuAi ; U ofTprlncono il snn- 
fue, la roba, la TJta, ed i flgli- 

Mac. v. 

Cke farli tu, s'clla il dice o' fratelli ? 

Boc. D. 

il giuvane udendo le parolr drlla ma- 
drc, &c. Boc. D. 

Perchi fiorTiepiii belli hai nrl viso. 

Tas. a. 

i rende Tcnerabile ai soggetti. 

Tas.G.L. 



1 



7'nncrcd kills the lover of hit daugh- 
ter. 

They are all thine (at thy disposal); 
they off'«T thee their blood, their 
property, their lire.^, and thtir chil- 
dren. 

What wilt thou do if she tell it to her 
brothers ? 

The youth bearing the words of hit 
mother. 

Because thou hast mnch more beauti- 
ful flowers in thy face. 

He renders himself venerable to Ai* 
subjects. 



146. There is one thing, in the employing' of the article 
without the pronoun, -which is often very puzzling to the 
learner ; and it is this, that, while the possessive pronoun is 
omitted, the personal pronoun representing the person to whom 
possession is attributed, is introduced ; and the personal pro- 
noun, thus used, is always in the dative Case. In the follow- 
ing examples we see the article used instead of the possessive 
pronoun, and the personal pronouns 7?ii, ti, gli, le, si, ci, vi, 
all in the dative : 



Ambo le roani per dolor mi morsi. 

Dan. In. 

Gaddo tni si gett6 disteso a' piedi. 

Dan. In, 

II nome che nel cor mi scrisse amore. I 

Pbt. S. I 

Hosentito delle cose, che jn'hanno inon- I 
dato t/ cuore di giiibilo. Gol. C. I 

Se ti sento favellare, io ti ta^lierb il I 
collo. Mac. C. I 

« Cli sonavano ntgli orecchi gli stru- 
men^i. G. Goz. N. 

Labella donna che cotinto amava, 
Novellamente gli c dal cor partita. 

Ari.O.F. 

■i con le sue man h man le sciolse. 

Tab. a. 

Ma come Silvia in liberty le mani 
5iTide,3cc. Tas. A. 



I bit both my hands for grief. 

Gaddo threw himself stretched at my 

feet. 

The name which lore wrote in my 
heart. 

I have heard things which have filled 
my heart with joy. 

If I hear thee speak, I will cut thjf 
throat. 

The instruments sounded in his ears. 



The fair lady whom he so much loved, 
is all at once banished from his 
heart 

With his hands he tintied her hands. 



But when Sylvia saw her hands ia 
liberty. 



XVIII.l 



OF PRONOUNS. 



221 



Squarciosst i panni, e«t percosse ilviso. I She tore her clothes, and stnick her 

Ari. O. F. I face. 

'—— ei trassc gli 6cchi ad alto un grido. | A cry attracted our eyes on high. 

Tas. a. 



LascUte che io vi baci /« mano. 

GoL.C. 



Permit that I kiss your baud. 



These are to be observed, in this place, as instances in which 
the Italians employ the article, and omit the possessive pronoun. 
The employment, here, of the personal pronoun in the dative 
Case is a matter to be considered in another part of Syntax. 
(See Paragraph 289.) 

147. Our word own, which is a noun, meaning what one 
owns or what belongs to one, is expressed by the adjective 
prSpiOj or proprio. Thus, the Italians say, mia propia figli- 
uola, my own daughter, di sua propria testa, of his own head, 
il tuo propio libro, thy owjihook. And this word is often used 
with the article and without the possessive pronoun : as, 



Assai ed uomini e donne abbandona- 
rono la propria citta, le pruprie 
case. Boc. D. 



Many, both men and women, aban- 
doned their own city, their orvn 
houses. 



Of Relative Pronouns, 

148. For the Etymology of these, see Paragraph 43. It 
w^ill here be necessary to do hardly any more than show the 
various meanings of the words che and quale. I have already 
noticed, in Etymology, the different ways of employing the 
pronoun onde. We will now see how the two relatives che 
and quale are employed. 

Che, with a grave accent on the e, is sometimes used as an 
abbreviation of the word percht, why ; as, che non andate? 
why do you not go? che non 'parlatel why do you not 
speak ? CJie is used, also, in the sense of our word what, in 
exclamations ; as, che bella donna! what a handsome lady ! 
Sometimes it is used in the sense oiperche, for, or because ; as, 
Epero comdndami, cii' io desidero servirti, and therefore com- 
mand me,ybr I desire to serve thee : Fio, N. Che means the 
same as our word than, when employed to express comparison ; 
2.8, egli e pii ricco che savio, he is more rich than wise, 
Che is employed in the sense of that, as a conjunction; as. 



222 SYNTAX [Chap, 

voi mi dicesfe cue avevate un cavnllo, you told me that 
30U had a liorse. Che sometimes stands for as ; as, un rjiornoy 
CHE veniva a visitarci, one daj, as he was coming to visit us. 
Che is sometimes used in the sense of our word butj when but, 
in English, has tlie same sense as 0)ihj ; as, efjli non ha ciiE 
vn cavatlo, he has but one horse. The word che, when im- 
mediately preceded by the negative non, very frequently an- 
swers the purjx)se of our compound conjunctions much more 
and jiiuch less : as, 



E' dnv' ella comanda 
Lbbidiace anco il ciei non che]a, terra. 

GuA- P. F. 



An'! wlicn sherommanJs, even heaven 
obeys, much more \bt earlb. 



Sjjero trovar pieta, non <?Ae perdono. I I hope to find pity, mucA more pardon. 

Pet. So!*. I 

♦ IJn volnme non basterebbe, 7inn che I A Tolutne wonld not be enough, murA 

una letlera. i3s.N. L. I /eo a letter. 

Quale is sometimes used in the sense of such as, or like ; as, 
quesio uomo ii divcnuto quale sciocco, this man is got to be 
like a fool : Questo c quale voi lo volcte, this is such as 
you wish it. Quale is used in the sense of some, in speaking 

of either persons or things : as, 

* ] 

Quo? se n' andA in conta'.o, e fjual I Some went into the country, and *om< 
qui, e qttal \L Dec. D. I here, and sotTte there. 

£ quall3isc\b ferito, e quale ucciso. I And $ome he left wounded, and c om« 

Aiii. O. f . I dead. 

It sometimes has reference to the quality or nature of a thing ; 
as, 71071 sapctc quale e il dolor ch^ io seiito, you do not know 
what grief I feel : literally, you do not know what is tfik grief, 
or, of what nature is the grief, 1 feel. Quale is used, also, in 
an exclamatory way, in the sense of our word tvhat ; as, qual 
upmo ! What a man! qual pazzo set tu! What a fool 
thou art .' 

Quale, in its capacity of relative pronoun, always re- 
quires the article with it. Thus we must say, /' noma il 
quale, the man who ; git uomini 1 quali, the men who; la 
donna la quale, the woman who; le donne le quali, the 
women who ; and not /' uomo quale, gli uomini quali, &c. 
Che and quale are, as relatives, very nearly the same in their 



XVIII.^ OF PRONOUNS. 223 

employment. But cuz dift'ers from them in this, that cui can 
never be used in the nominative Case ; and that, while, in the 
objective Casey we may apply either che or cui indifferently in 
speaking of both persons and things, we must, in the othar 
Cases, use cui, if we be speaking of persons; and, if we be 
speaking of things not rational, we may use either che or cui. 
In the nominative, we may say, V uomo cue corre, the 
man who, or that, runs, and, il cavallo che corre, the 
horse which, or that, runs ; and, in the objective we may 
say, r uomo che, or cui ho veduto, the man whom, or 
that, I have seen; and il cavallo che, or cui ho veduto, 
the horse which, or that, I have seen. But, in the posseS" 
sive, dative, and ablative Cases, we must not apply di che^ 
a che, da che, to persons ; but, rather, di cui, a cui, da cui. 
They are both equally applicable to things merely ; but, in 
speaking of persons, the former is proper. So we must say, 
V uomo di cui, the man oiwhom-, V uomo a cui, the man to 
whom; V uomo da cui, the man from whom; &c. And, in 
speaking of a horse, we may either say, il cavallo di che, or 
di CUI, the horse of which ; il cavallo a che, or a cui, the 
horse to which ; il cavallo da che, or da cui, the horse from 
which. Che has sometimes the article employed with it, like 
quale : il che, del che, al che, meaning the same as, il quale^ 
del quale, &c. 

149. The Italians have no word precisely like our whose. 
Whose is sometimes used in a sort of half relative and half 
possessive sense; as, tlie man whose horse I saw : here whose 
does the office of a relative pronoun, and, at the same time, 
ascribes possession. Then, again, we use it interrogatively 
with the sense of possession ; as, whose horse is this? Here 
we mean, the man, the horse of whom; ofwhomisihis horse? 
The adding in this way, ofse to our ivho, in order to markpos- 
session, is a thing similar to that mentioned in the Syntax of 
Nouns, that is, the putting of an s with an apostrophe at the 
end of a poun to mark its being in the possessive Case. To 
express our whose in the relative sense, the Italians would 
use di cui, of whom, and, to express the interrogative sense, 
they would use di chi, of whom : as, 



224 SYNTAX [Chap. 

Una donna, di cui la virtu i ctlebrc,' I A Imly ti hott virtue ii celebrated. 
JJi chi t quMto libro 'f I Whose it this book ? 

150. It frequently happens that the prepositions di and a, 
the signs of the possessive and dative Cases, are omitted before 
the relative cuij though the sense of them is intended to be 
understood : as, 

Amore, la cui Datura ^ tale, &c. I Love, theaatureo/it'AtcAia sacb. 

Boc. D. I 

Voi, cut fortunabaposto il freno, &c. • You, to nhotn fortune bas placed the 

Pet. C. I bridle. 

Here what is meaned is, la natura di cui, a cui fortuna ha 
posto. Sometimes the words di cui have the article placed 
before them : il di cui, la di cui, i di cui, le di cui. The 
meaning of these, literally, is, the of whom, or, the of which. 
Per example, we may express the sense of the foregoing ex- 
ample of Boccaccio in three difi'erent ways: 

Amore, la cui natura h tale, 

°'^' I Love, the nature of nhieh (or 

Amore, la di cui natura d tale, ^ 



'» 



or, 
Amore, la natura di cut i tale, 



I Love, the nature of nhieh 
( nhote nature) is sucb. 



Then, again, there is a fourth manner of expressing the same; 
namely, with the relative quale with the article before it: 
Amore, la natura del quale e tale. — The form of expression with 
the article before the dt cui is, by some, considered not good. 
SoAVE tells us that such phrases as " la di cui natura," the na- 
ture of which or ofiuhom, or whose nature, ** il di cui valore," 
the bravery of which, or of whom, or whose bravery, zire not 
to be used, and that they are vicious in grammar. 

Of Demonstrative Pronouns. 

151. In the Etymolog}' of these pronouns {Paragraph 44), 
I have explained, in a great measure, the manner in which 
they are used in Italian. It will not, I think, be necessary to 
add any thing to what I have said under the head of Ety- 
mology. 



XVIIL] ' OF PRONOUNS. 225 

Of Interrogative Pronouns. 

152. See the Etymology of these pronouns (Paragraph 45), 
with some explanations as to their employment ; and see, also, 
Paragraph 149. The interrogative chi will again have to be 
noticed, both as an indeterminate pronoun, and as having a 
relative signification; for which see Paragraph 157. With 
these references I may quit this head. There is but very little 
to require explanation in the interrogatives. 

Of Indeterminate Pronouns, 

153. At Paragraph 46, beneath which there is a list of the 
indeterminate pronouns, I have referred to Syntax for explana- 
tion relative to some of these. The only pronouns of this class 
that it is necessary to take particular notice of are, unOy V una, 
/' WTza, gli uni, le une, Valtro, V altra, gli altriy le altre, altri, 
altrui, and chi. 

154. Uno and una^ besides the meaning which they have as 
numerical adjectives, sometimes stand indefinitely in the sense 
of a person, just as our word one does in English : as. 



Egli e quasi impossihile chewno possa 
stare un anno ozioso. 

Mac. p. 



It is almost impossible tliat one should 
be able to remain a year idle. 



155. L' uno, r una, represent our the one, 2ind gli uni, le 
une, our the ones ; in the same way, Z' altro, V altra, repre- 
sent our the other, and gli altri, le altre, our the others. As 
in the following examples : 



SalTcak I'onore delV una, senza ini- 
tire la passioue deW altro. 

GoL. C. 



I will save the honour of the one^ 
without irritating the passion oithc 
other. 



Perfida Z'wnfl, e Z'(i7f ro ^ tradi tore. | The one is perfidious, and tht other 

Ari. O. F. I a traitor. 

Altro and altri are sometimes used in repetition, both in the 
singular number; the first, in the sense of one thing and an- 
other thing, the latter^ in that oi one person and another per ^ 
son- as: 

AltiQ ^ pavUr di morte, aUro e morire. i It is one thing to talk of death, ani$th(r 

Maf. M. I to die, 

l5 



226 



SYNTAX 



[Cliap. 



AUri cadr, altri fu?i;f, alli i s'nppiatln. 

Ari.O. F. 



One M\%, another fleet, another souhXt 
down. 



1.36. 'Hie word uLtrni has the same meaning as altri; and, 
like hUriy may be employed in both the singular and plural 
numbers. But altri is used in no otlier Case than the nominal 
tive, while altrui is used in all the Cases, tlie nominative ex- 
cepted. In the possessive and dative Cases, it is, observe, very 
customary to omit the })repositions dt and a, the signs of those 
Cases, before the pronoun altrui. The word altrui conveys 
the possessive and dative sense, of itself, without t!ie preposi- 
tion ; as may be seen by the following examples : 



Dove Rujjgier viye in altrui balia. 

Ari. O.F. 

De' fatti altrui sempre ccrcar novella, &c. 

' Am. O. F. 



agli insnUi alh-iti. 



Mkt. O. 



colui 



Che Ti (lit lorza sopra i cu6ri aiti ui. 

Sac. R. 



la mia tita, ch' i celatr. nitrvi. 
Pet. S. 



Chi ^ altrui sottoposto dee sapere, &c. 

SoA. N. 

— — non vo' (larla a te, ne altrui. 

Ari.O F. 



Where Ro;;er lives in the power of 
another. 

Alw:»yslo seek news of other people^s 
doitii^s. 

To the insults of others. 



He who gives you power over the 
hearts of others. 

My life, which is bidden to others. 



He who is subjected to others ought 
to know. '^ 

i I will not give her to thee, nor to 
I anothtr. 



157. The pronoun chi has the significations of he who, or 
the person- who, any one, or any person who, some one, or 
some person who ; and, as an interrogative, it means who, and 
sometimes luhich when applied in speaking oi persons. When 
the prepositions di, a, da, are used bfefore du, it means of him 
who, to him luflo, or the person who, &c. Observe the.e ex- 
amples : 



Chi (t altrui sottop63to dee sapere, &c.' 

SoA. N. 



cki bene impera 



Si rende venerdbile ai soggetti. 

Ta9. G. L. « 

Chi va fuor del suo paese a veder il 
mondo, &c. B&.\. L, 

Sin maladctto ehi tal lecc^e pose, 
E maladctto «/ji la pxio patire. 

Ari. O. F. 



Herrho is subjected to others ought 
to know. 

ne nho covenn well renders himself 
venerable to his subjects. 

He who goes out of his country to see 
the world. 

Cursed be he mho imposed snrb a 
law, and cur»ed he rvho can endure 
it. 



XVIIL] 



OF PRONOUNS. 



227 



N^ sari in Italia chi vi si opponga. 

Gui. S. 

Colui che ingdnna trovera sempre chi si 
Jaseitri inganniie. 

Mac. p. 

Beato e ben chi nasce a tal destino. 

Pet. T. 

Chi mi dari la voce e le parole 
Conveuienti a si nobil sogg^tto? 

Ari. O. F. 



Chi di noi avr6bbe vantiggio? 



Mac. p. 



Nor will there be ar.y one in Italy 
who will oppose himself to it. 

He wlio deceiTes will always find 
some one mho will allow himself to 
be deceived. 

Blessed indeed is he who is born to 
such a destiny. 

Who will give me voice and words lit 
for such a noble theme ? 

Which of us would have the advan- 
tage ? 



The employing of chi, in the sense of he w%o, or the person 
who, is very similar to a manner we have of using our who 
alone, having the sense of the personal pronoun he included 
in it. Thus, Shakspeare has, ^' who steals my purse 
steals trash," meaning, he who, or the person who steals my 
purse. But the use of chi, in this manner, is of very frequent 
occurrence in ItaHan, while, in our language, the who, thus 
used, occurs but very seldom. Instead of using chi, in this 
way, it is optional with the Italians to use_ the demonstrative 
pronoun colui, that man, or that person, with the relative che 
following it ; as : 



Ma colui che arriva al priacipato con 11 
favore popolare, &c. 

Mac. p. 



But he mho, or that person who, ar- 
rives at the princely power with the 
popular favour. 



Here Macchiavelli might have said chi arriva, as well 
as, COLUI cue arriva, . And, in the sixth. of the foregoing 
examples, it might have been, chi ingdnna, as well as colui 
CUE ingdnna » 



228 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

SYNTAX OF AdJFXTIVES. 

I 

157. For the Etymology of this part of speech, see Para' 
graph 47. In the Syntax of adjectives, we have three things, 
principally, to consider: first, the agreement of the adjective, in 
gendei' and number, with the noun ; secondly, the manner in 
•which the Italians express comparison in en»ploying the adjec- 
tive ; and, thirdly, the situation that adjectives occupy in sen- 
tences, relatively to the other words among which they are 
placed. We will first consider the gender and number. There 
is no great diflSculty in this matter : the adjective agrees with 
the noun, in gender and number, by having its termination tQ 
correspond with that of the noun ; as : 



Masculine. 

o- ( I' riomo virtuoso, 

Bittff- J 

I The virtuous man. 

r,, ( ffli udmitii virtu6si, 
Plur. i-L. . 

I The virtuous men. 



Sing. 



I 



Femininb. 
f T.a donna virluita, 
i The virtuous woman. 



Plur ^ '* donne virtuose, 

I The virtuous women. 



Thus it is with all adjectives that have ybz^r terminatiom; 
that is, two for the masculine, and two for the feminine. But 
there are, as we have seen in Etymologj^, a great many adjec- 
tives that have only^ic'o terminations-, one for the masculine 
and feminine singular, and one for the masculine and feminine 
plural ; as : 



Masculine. 

„. ( I' uomo amabile, 

I The amiable man. 

_. ( Gli u6mini amubilif 
\ The amiable men. 



Sintj . 



Plur. 



Feminine. 
( In donna amabile, 
\ The amiable woman. 

( le donne amabili, 
\ The amiable women. 



XIX.] OF ADJECTIVES. 229 

This is learned in an instant. But it sometimes occurg, 
that there are two nouns, or more, which are different from 
each other in their gender or number, or, different both in 
gender and number, and that they come before an adjective 
■which relates to both, or to all of them. It is a general rule, 
in such cases, that the masculine gender is to he preferred 
to the feminine ; and, therefore, the adjective is, generally, 
made to agree with the noun which is in the masculine 
gender : as, 

W\ofratcllo e mia sorella carissimi, | My verij dear brother and sister. 

Thus it is, if the nouns represent things which may be distin- 
guished as belonging to the one or the other gender by their 
sex. But if the nouns represent things which have not sex to 
distinguish them, then the adjective must be made to agree 
with the noun which stands nearest to it : as. 

La casa ed i palazzi altif 



or, 
I palazzi e la casa alia, 



The high house and palaces. 

or, 
The high palaces and house. 



In the first example, mio fratello e mia sorella carissimi, 
there is, on account of the sex of the persons spoken of, more 
choice allowed as to which noun, fratello or sorella^ should 
stand first ; for, if sex be expressed by one of the nouns which 
is in the masculine, then, whether that noun stand next to the 
adjective or not, the adjective must be in the masculine gender. 
But in this latter example, it would be much better to say, la 
casa ed i palazzi aid, than to express it in the other way. 
We are obliged, on' account of the sex of the masculine /"ra^e/Zo, 
to say carissimij and not carissime -, and as, when nouns do 
not represent things having sex, we must make the adjective 
agree with the last of the nouns, and as the masculine is to be 
preferred to the feminine gender, it is best always to put the 
masculine next to the adjective. It would not sound well to 
say, I palazzi e la casa alti, on account of the masculine ad- 
jective in the plural coming immediately next to the feminine 
noun in the singular. If both the nouns be in the plural, we 
may put the feminine nearest the adjective, the adjective agree- 
ing in gender with the noun in the masculine which has gone 
before: as, 

\ 



230 SYNTAX [Chap. 

I paisi t le «itl6/am6si, \ The counttirs and rttitt famoua. 

But, thoti2:h the adjective does, here, agree in number with the 
noun cittUy it would be best to jmt the noun fafsi next the ad- 
jective ; because, with the latter noun, the adjective would then 
agice both in gender and nu?nbcr. It would sound much 
better to say, le citU) cd i yaesifavwsi. 

If there be any word or words coming between the last of the 
nouns and the adjective, then the adjective must agree with the 
masculine noun, whether that noun stand next to the adjective 
or not ; as : 



La casn ed i palazzi ess^ndo alti, 
/ J>alct:i e la casa che sono alti, 



Tlir house and the palaces being 

The palaces axiH the house which 
are hiyh. 



And this must be the case, also, when there are two or more nouns 
all in the singular number, though differing in gender ; as: 



II mcrilo c laforluna vanno rara- 

mente uviti, 
Quest' ulivo e questa vite sodo 

■ijellissimi, 



Merit and fortune seldom go 

united. 
This olive-tree and this vine are 

vary fine. 



And not, II merito e la fortuna unitej quest' ulivo e questa vite 
bellissimi. 

158. When we make use of nouns of multitude, which, in 
the singular number, represent a number of persons or things 
collectively, we must, in Italian, put the adjective in the sin- 
gular ; as : 



nn popolo scontento, 
una gente ajtitta, 
una turba sfrtnitta. 



a disc'^nted people, 
an ajfiicted race, 
au unbridled mob. 



But in using the expressions il piu, most, la piu parte, the 
most part, la maggior pai*te, the greater part, 2in buon numerOy 
a good number, la meta, the half, una parte, a part, una gran 
parte, a great part: in using these, with a plural noun follow- 
ing them, the adjective which relates to the noun,, if there be 
any, must be in the plural, and agree with the noun in gender; 
as : 

// pm di quest! u6mini sono af- | Most of these men are a£Bicted. 
yiitti, I 



XIX.] 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



'231 



Im piu parte degli u6mini sono 

amhizidsi, 
La matjgior parte di questi fichi 

sono buSni, 
Vn buon numero del p6polo erano 

scontenti. 



The most part of m«n are ambi- 
tious. 

Tlie greater part of theie figs are 
good. 

A good nnmber of the people iwere 
discontented. 



Yet these may, according to circumstances, be used in either 
Avay, having the adjective in the singular or in the plwal. 
When they are intended to express an indefinite part of a mcm- 
her of persons or things, and the noun coming after is in the 
plural, as in the above examples, then the adjective must agree 
with the noun in its plural number and in the gender it expresses. 
But the noun may sometimes be in the singular number; and, 
in such case, the adjective must agree with the noun or not, 
just according to the sense that is intended. For example : 



La magtjior parte dell' esercito 

riniasero morti, 
Una parte di questo defldro e do- 

vuta a ine. 



The greater part of the army re- 
mained dead. 

A part of this money is due to 
me. 



In the first example, numbers is understood, though not ex- 
pressed, by the word esercito ; and therefore the adjective is in 
the plural : in the' second, the adjective agrees, in gender, with 
the una 'parte itself, as a noun, and not with the dendro, to 
which the una parte relates with a partitive signification'. 

159. With respect to the comparison of adjectives, the thing 
most important to attend to, is the way in which our word than 
is expressed by the Italians. To translate our than, they have 
two words, namely, the preposition di and the word che, which 
latter is a relative pronoun, and which has_, besides, other capa- 
cities than that of pronoun, as we have already seen in Para- 
graph 148. 

160. In Paragraph 54, I have said something about the 
manner of forming the comparat-;ve and superlative degrees of 
adjectives. It is in the comparative degree, and especially as 
respects the way of expressing our than in making comparison, 
that the two languages differ most. There are certain adverbs 
made use of in expressing comparison, as was observed in Para- 
graph 54. The adverbs most frequently used are, piu, more, 
me7i,0y less, mcglioj better, and jpe^^zo, worse. Now, then,' let 



232 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



us see when v:e are to use di, and when c/te, in the sense of 
our thaji. 

In the first place, di is used before the personal pronouns ; 
as: 



Tn sei piCi ricco di me, 
Jo sono piCi ricco di te, 
ErU e ineno rirco di lei, 
Ella i- ineno rirca di liii, 
^oi siimo pii^ ricchi di voi, 
Voi siete piCi ricchi di not, 
lo sono men ricco di loro, 



Thou art more rich than I. 
I am more rich than thou. 
Hf is less rich than she. 
She is less rich than he. 
We are more rich than you. 
You are more rich than we, 
I am less rich than they. 



161. Then, again, we must use di before the possessive pro- 
nouns : 



Quel cavallo t piu bello del tos- 

tro, 
I>a mia casa c meno alta della 

tua, 

I suoi scolari sono meno dotti dti 
mici, 

II mio giardino e piil grande del 
vostro, 



That horse is more handiome 

than yours. 
My house is less high than thine. 

His scholars are less learned (Aan 

mine. 
My garden is more large than 

yours. 



162. Before nouns, also, with which the definite article is 
employed, we must use di • as : 



La chiesa e piO alta ddla casa, 
11 ci61o e piCi grande della terra, 
L' argento e meno prezioso dell' 

OtOy 



The church is more high than 

the house. 
The sky is more large than the 

earth. 
Silver is less precious than gold. 



And di is used before nouns which are the proper names of 
persons, places, &c. ; as : 



GioYantii <i piii dotto di Tomaso, 
Parigi e meno grande di Londra, 



John is more learned fAanThoma*. 
Paris is less large than London. 



163. Di is used before the infinitive of a verb, where the 
infinitive has' the article with it and is employed in the capacity 
of a noun, like our participle active, which is an idiom noticed 
particularly at Paragraph 248 ; as : 



Lo scrivere ^ meno facile del 
^ pari ire, 

E migliore il laTorare dtllo stare 
in oziOf 



Writing is less easy than speak- 
ing. 

Workin:;' is better than remaining 
in idleneii. 



XIX.] 



OF ADJECTITES, 



233 



164. Now, if we were to translate these examples literally, 
they would be thus : thou art more rich of me, that horse is 
more handsome q/ thine, the church is more high o/"the house, 
John is more learned oy Thomas, writing is less easy q/* speak- 
ing; and so on with the rest. But here is, in Italian, some- 
thing left to be understood besides what is expressed. What is 
meaned is : tu sei piu ricco a comparazioyie di me, quel cavallo 
"h piu bello a comparazione del tuo, la chiesa e piu alta a com- 
parazione della casa, Giovanni e piu dotto a comparazione di 
Tomaso. That is, thou art more rich when compared with me, 
that horse is more handsome whe7i compared with thine, &c. ; 
or, as the Italians have it, literally, thou art more rich at com^ 
parison o/me, &c. And here we see the reason why the 
Italians do not use the personal pronoun in the nominative in 
such cases, as we do, but say me, te, lui, lei, me, thee, him, 
her, &c. instead oiio, tu, egli, ella, I, thou, he, she, &c. 

We will now take some examples of the use of che, and, 
afterwards, see the reason that is to guide us as to when we 
should employ di and when die, 

165. Che must be used between two verbs, when there is 
comparison made between the different acts or states of being 
described by the verbs ; as : 



Ella parla piil chc non legge, 

E meglio fare che dire, 

Ella e piii bella che non pareva, 

Meglio non far nulla che far male, 



She talks more than she reads. 
It is better to do than to say. 
She is more handsome than she 

appeared. 
Better not do any thing than do 

evil. 



166. Che must be used in making comparison between two 
adjectives, as to the degree in which the quality or character- 
istic described by the one is possessed relatively to that which 
is described by the other ; as : 



Id sono piOl ricco che dotto, 
Ella t pii bella che amabile, 

Voi siete meno prudente che for- 

tunato, 
Meglio ozioso c/iemal impiegato, 



I am more rich than learned. 

She is more handsome than ami- 
able. 

You are less prudent than fortu- 
nate. 

Better idle <AaJi ill-employed. 



167. Che must be used in comparison between two nouns, 



234 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



when the nouns hnve a sort of adjective capacity, and express 
the catluifjs^ states in life^ or conditions, of people ; as: 



£gli c miglior oratore che poeta, 
£gli k piuttoato seno chr padrone, 



He is a better oratoT than poet 

He is r&lUer a servant fAan a master. 



168. Che must be used when the comparison is made be- 
tween two adverbs ; as : 



Voi tiete pid felice adesso che 

altre volte, 
£gli paria peggio'oggi thejeri, 

lo sto meglio qii i the altrove, 
^ meglio tardi che mai, 



Yoa are more happy now than 
formerly. 

He speaks worse today than yes- 
terday. 

I am better here than elsewhere. 

It is better late (Aan never 



169. It is an easy thing to tell us in a few words, and with 
a few rules, that we must sometimes use di and sometimes che. 
But rules are sometimes very insufficient when unaccompanied 
by reasons ; and the reasons that grammarians give us about 
this matter are by no means satisfactory. The matter is clear 
enough so far as this, that, when di is used, the phrase '' a 
comparazione" is always left to be understood, and tliat the 
sense of that phrase, or something similai* to it, being intended 
by |he Italians, is the cause of their sometimes using dij in- 
stead of che, which latter word is, observe, the proper repre- 
sentative of our thaJi. It is, particularly, when the verb essere, 
to be, is made use of, and when the repetition of that verb 
does not take place, that di, instead of che, is employed. 
When the di is used, it serves, in most cases, to form the com- 
parison merely as to the bei7ig of the persons or things between 
which the comparison is made. 



PiCk scaltra certo se'tu di me. 

GuA. P. F. 



More canning, certainly, ert thoa 
than I. 



That is to say, a comparazione di me. And observe, now, 
that if we were to repeat the verb to be here, we must use che 
and not di, putting the pronoun, at the same time, in the nomi- 
native Case : Piu scaltra certo se' tu che io non sono, more 
cunning, certainly, art thou than I am. And so on, with the 
examples before given : 



XIX.] 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



235 



Tu sei pifi ricco cheio non sono, 
lo sono pill ricco chelu non sei, 
EgVx ^ meno ricco che ella non fc, 
Ella e meno ricca che eyli non t, 
Quel cavallo e piil bello che non 

e 11 vostro, 
La mia casa i meno alta che la 

tua 7ion i. 
La chiesa ^ piu alta che la casa^ 

non tf 
Giovanni ^ pid dotto c/ieTomaso 

71071 k, 

Lo scrivere h meno facile che non 
b il parlare, ' 



Thou art more rich thn7i I am. 

I am more rich than thou art. 

He is less rich than she is. 

She is less ricli than he is. 

Tl)at liorse is more handsome than 
yours is. 

My house is less high than yours 
is. 

The church is more high than the 
house is. 

Joliu is more learned than Tho- 
mas is. 

Writing is less easy than speak- 
ing is. 



And so on, with the rest of the examples that have been given 
before, with these, under Paragraphs 160, 161, 162, and 163. 
In these exannples there is the non, ?2o^, where we use no nega- 
tive : this is a matter belonging to another part of Syntax (see 
Paragraph 290). We see, then, that in .all cases in which di 
can be used, we may, by amplification, use che instead of di^ if 
w^e choose ; but, mind (for here is the distinction to be made), 
we could not use the di, instead of the che, as in the following : 

Ella parla pid di non lej^ge. 

lo sono pill ricco di dotto. i 

Egli ^ miglior oratore di poeta. 

Voi siete piu felice adesso di altre volte. 

And SO on, with the other examples given under Paragraphs 
165, 166, 167, and 168. This would be bad. And why ? Be- 
cause the phrase a cornparazione could not be left to be under- 
stood here, without our intending to compare the persons 
represented by the pronouns ella, io, egli, voi,, vjith the verb, 
adjective, noun, and-c.dverb : it would be putting the ella in 
comparison with the legge, the zo-with the dotto, the egli with 
the padrone, and the voi with tlie altre volte. And, making 
the comparison in this way, the meamng would be as follows ; 

She speaks more than she reads speaks. 

I am more rich than learned is. 

He is a better orator than poet is. 

You are more happy now than/o?mfrZ(/ is. 

And this, we know, is not the meaning intended. The compa- 
rison, in these instances, has nothing to do with the nominatives 
' ella, io, egli, voi, but is made between the two verbs, the two 



236 SYNTAX [Chap. 

adjectives, the two nouns having an adjective meaning, and 
the two adverbs ; between the parla and the Icgge, the ricco 
and the dotto, the oratore and the pocta, the iidesso and the 
allre voltrc. And we must observe, that, in order to employ 
di will) propriety, there must always be two persons or two 
things expressed as subjects of the verb, each of them being a 
participator in that, whatever it be, about which the compa- 
rison is made : 

Tu sei piu rirro di me. ' 

Qurl cavallo e piCl bello del vostrOm 
La chicsa e piii alta della cast. 
GiovanHi ^ pid dotto di Tomnso, 
Lu scriveie t meno rtcile del parlare. 

Here the employment of di is correct ; because here are, in 
each example, as in each of the rest under Paragraphs 161, 
162, 163, and 164, two persons or two things, both of which 
are subjects of the verb to be, and each of which is mentioned 
as participating, in a comparative degree, in what is expressed 
by the adjectives. Here are the thou and the /, the that horse 
and the yours, the church and the house, the John and the 
Thomas, the act of writing and the act of speaking. Each 
two are subjects of the verb to he, and each two participate, 
as compared with one another, in what is expressed by the 
ricco, bellOf alta, dotto, and facile. Take the following ex- 
amples : 

Affligge pid che non conforta. I She afflicts more than she comforts. 

Pet, S. I 

Vedi Sans6ne,viepiCl fortecA#> sivio. I See Sampson, more strong <Aan wise. 

Pet. T. I 

Allor temetti pi6 che mai la morte. | Then I feared death more than ever. 

Dan. In. I 

Here we could not use di, for the reason already given : here 
are no two persons or two things compared with each other; 
but the comparison is between the two verbs affligge and con- 
forta, the two adjectives forte, and sdvio, the two adverbs 
allor and Twaz.— We see, then, the reason why we may, in 
some cases, use di, and why, in others, we must not use di, 
but che. 



XIX.] or ADJECTIVES. 237 

170. Observe, hoAvever, that, though we must always use che 
when the comparison is not made between persons or things, 
yet, the rules given in Paragraphs 161, 162, 163, and 164, as to 
the use of di instead of che, are by no means rigid rules. So 
that we may say, either, 

Quel cavallo ^ pii bello del vostro, or, che il vostro. 

La ehi6sa i piOl alta delta casa, or, che la casa. 

Lo scrivere ^ meno ficile del parldre, or, che il parlire. 

Observe the following examples : 

E migliore il suo iddio che il too. I His god is better than thine. 

Nov. Ant. I 

lo sono piCl contento che il reo ti- I I am more happy than the wicked 
rdnno. Soa. N. I tyrant. 

Luceyftn gli occhi suUi pit! che\a stella. j Her eyes shined more than the star. 

Dan. In. I 

M' i piCl caro ilmorirc^e'lviversenza. I Dying is more agreeable to me than 

Pet. C. I living without. 

In these four examples the use of che is perfectly correct; and 
yet di might have been used with equal propriety. 

With proper names, also, like those mentioned in Paragraph 
162, we may use either di or che: 

Giovinni d piCl dotto di, or che Tomaso. ' 
Parigi i meno grande di, or, che Londia. 

171. If the comparison be made between different persons 
or things, and the verb employed be any other than the verb 
to be ; in such case, it is a matter in doubt with some gram- 
marians, whether our than should be translated by di or by 
che. For example : 



Giovanni studia piii di, or che 

Tomaso. 
II mio cavallo va meglio del, or 

che il vostro, 
II palazzo mi place meno della, 

or che la casa, 
Londra pare piCl grande di, or che 

P*rigi, 



John studies more than Thomai. 
My horse goes better than yours. 

The palace pleases me less than 

the house. 
London appears more large than 

Paris. 



Some are of opinion that the che is to be preferred in such 
cases. The ehe would, certainly, be the most common in 



238 SYNTAX [Chap. 

practice ; olhrrwiKC, I sec no difference here between di and 
che, which are both equally good as far as principle k con- 
cerned. 

172. With the "numerical adjectives our than is generally 
translated by di • as : 



Ho piOi <li due cnvalli, 
Avete meno rfi qiiattro, 
h pii^ d' UD anno, 
Sono piCi delle tre, 



I Imvp more than two honei. 
Yoii have less than four. 
It is niore than one year ago. 
It is more than three (o'clock). 



Nevertheless, practice admits the use of che in such cases as 
these, although di is considered as more proper. 

173. To express our than whafy the Italians use the demon- 
strative pronoun quello or quel, that, along with the preposition 
di followed by the relative pronoun che, which 3 as : 



"Voi siete meno ricco rft qutl che 
eravite, 

10 sono piCi felice di quel che 
pen<ite, 

11 cavallo vale piii di quel che 
dite, 



You are less rich than nhat yoa 

were. 
I am more happy than rvhat^on 

think. 
The horse is worth more than 

nhat yoQ say. 



That is, literally, a comparaziune di quel che eravate, com- 
pared with that which you were, &c. 

174. What has been said as respects the personal and pos- 
sessive pronouns applies, equally, to the making of comparison 
when we use any of the other pronouns, questo, quello, colui, 
niuno, uno, altro tutto, &c., or any other of the many pro- 
nouns, which it would be useless to enumerate here in full. 

175. The words majlio, better, and pcggio, worse, are some- 
times considered as adjectives. They are subject, however, to 
no change in their endings to express gender or number ,• and, 
properly speaking they are never joined to a noun as adjec- 
tives ; but they are, rather, adverbs descriptive of goodness or 
badness in manner ; as : 



Voi leggfcte meglio di me, 
Id legqo pfggio di voi, 



You read better than I- 
I read norse than yoa. 



But, to express the sense of our better and worse as adjectives, 
the Italians have migliore and peggiore ; and these, also, 
mean best and wont, in the superlative degree, as well as 



XIX.] OF ADJECTIVES. 239 

better and tvorse, in the comparative. Observe that, though 
migliore and peggiore include, within themselves, the sense of 
piuj we must not, if we would say, more good and more hady 
employ migliore and peggiore, but 'piil buono and pit), cat~ 
tivo ; as : 



He is more good than learned. 
He is more bad than learned. 



Egli e piu buono che dotto, 
EgU ^ piti cattivo che doito, 

And the same if we use meno, less. But, between two nouns or 
pronouns, when we mean to express better and wgrse, we mu§t 
use migliore and peggiore ; as : 



Giovanni t migliore di Tomaso, 
Voi siete peggiore di lui, 



John h better than Thomas. 
You are worse than he. f.. 



The Italians use, also, the adjectives superiore, superior, inje- 
riore, inferior, priore, prior, posteriure, posterior. But these 
are formal words, and seldom used in a comparative sense. 

176. In the observations made on the comparison of adjec- 
tives I have, in order to explain in one place all the different 
ways of expressing our than, had to speak of comparison other 
than that made between adjectives "only. I thought it better 
to do this than to divide the subject of comparison, and to have 
other parts of the work to refer to on the same subject. 

177. In order to increase or diminish, as it were, the degree 
of coipparison, the Italians use the words molto, assdi, and 
via or vie ; as, molto piu , much more, assdipiil, a great deal 
moTByVia or vie piu, far more, and molto meno, much less, as- 
sdi meno, a great deal less, via or vie meno, far less. Our not 
more is expressed by non piu, and not less by 7ion tneno. 

178. I have now to speak of certain words which are made 
use of in expressing a sort of comparison, which grammarians 
call equality. These words are, si or cosl, so, as ; come, as, 
so ; tanto or cotanto, so, so much as ; quanto, as, as much 
as; altrettdnto, as, as much as. Examples : 



Voi si^te cosl ricco come io, 

lo sono coal grande cojne tu, 

Voi si6te cosi dotto come egli, 

Egli non vi ama ta7ito qnunto se stesso, 

Egli ^ altrettanto bu6no quanta \oi, 

Eglino non erano sifelici come noi, 



You are as rich as I. I 

I am as tall as thou. 

You are as learned as he. 

He does not love you as much as himselC 

He is as good as you. 

They were not so hiippy as we. 



240 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Tlie s), cos) tantOj and altrettdnto, are frequently omitted ; 
and tljen coyne^ or quanta ^ alone, serves to form the compa- 
rison ; as : 



II mio ^erro c fcdtle come il TOitro, 
Lo de>idero quanto Toi, 
lo I' anio eomt la mia vita, 
lo sono dotto quanta voi, 
Et;li t bu6no ^Ma»i/o voi, 
Essa non 'jt hella quanta sua so- 
rella, 



My servant is a» faitlifal as yours. 
1 desire it as much as you. 
I love her as much as my life. 
I am as learned as you. 
He is as ^ood as you. 
She is not so handsome as her 
lister. 



The word co?nc is used in the sense of our word hoio ; as ; 



Chi pu6 dir come gravi e come ratte 
Le spade son ? Tas.G. L. 



Who can say how severe and how 
quick the swords are ? 



QuantOj with tanto or altrettanto following it, serves to ex- 
press our in "proportion as and so ; as : 

Quanto il primo eradolce altrettanto i In proportion as the first was gentle, 
aspro era il secondo. Soa. N. | so the second was fierce. 

And quanto pik, tanto piii, quanto meno, tanto mcno, serve 
to represent our the morCy the less, or so much the more, so 
much the less ; as : 

E 9t/a»i<o son piii ricchi e pid potenti, i And the more they are rich and 
Tanto piii in lor discortesia si rede. | powerful, the more one sees of on- 

IMac.R. j kindness in them. 

Quanto si mostramfn, tanto ^ piu bello. i The less it shows itself, so mu«b the 

Tas. G. L. I more beautifulis it. 

The tanto, coming after quanto, in such cases, is sometimes 
dropped, and the piii or jneiio remains alone ; as: 

E 9van<o piii si 8forza,/>iji s'afTanna. i And the more he exerts himself, the 

Ari. O. F. I more he torments himself. 

179. The words tayito or cotanto, quanto, altrettanto, are 
adverbs, when employed as in the foregoing examples ; but 
they may also become adjectives. As adverbs, they express 
degree or manner ; but, as adjectives, they are used with nouns 
to express number or quantity ; and, when used as adjectives, 
they are subject to vary their endings to agree, in number and 
gender, with the noun to which they relate; as: 



XIX.] 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



241 



Tnnto pane, 
Tanta virti'l, 
Tavti u6mlni, 
Tnule donne, 
Cotanta yarieti, 
Quariti cavalli, 
Quante case, 
Altrettanti u6mini, 



So much bread. 

So much virtue. 

So iiiuny men. 

So many women. 

So much variety. 

How many, or, as many horses. 

How many, or, as many houses. 

As many men. 



In this way, as adjectives, these words are subject to all the 
changes ofother adjectives ending in O; so, according to the gen- 
der and number of the noun to which they relate, they must all 
have the changes of tanlo, tanta, tanti, tante ; cotanto, co- 
tanta, cotantij cotante ; quanta, qua7ita, quanti, quante; 
altrettanto, altrettanta, altrettanti^ altrettante. There are, 
also, the words alquanto, somewhat ; molto, much ; and troppo, 
too much ; poco, little : these words are also used both as adjec- 
tives and as adverbs. As adverbs, they express degree, and 
as adjectives, they express quantity or number: as adverbs, 
they never change their termination in o ; but as adjectives, 
they have, like the other words just before spoken of, all the 
changes of other adjectives in o. For example : 



Alquavto lontano, 
Molto sorpreso, 
Troppo ingaimdto, 
Poco stimato, 



Somewhat distant. 
JVlucli surprised. 
Too much deceived. 
Little esteemed. 



Here they are used adverbially ; but they are used as adjec- 
tives in the following examples : 



Alquanta bellezza, 
AlquuHti uomini, 
Alquante donne, 
Molla fatica, 
Molti signorj, 
Molte case, 
Troppa liberti, 
Troppi palazzi, 
Troppe volte, 
Pochi lichi, 
Poca speranza, 
/•ocAe signore, 



Some, or a litte beauty. 
Some, or a few men 
Some, or a few \vomen. 
Much trouble. 
Many gentlemen. 
Many houses. 
Too much liberty. 
Too many palaces. 
Too many times. 
Few figs. 
Little hope. 
Few ladies. 



180. The next and last thing to be considered is, the sitna- 
t ion in which the adjective is to be placed. In this respect, 
the Italian adjective differs a good deal from ours. The fol- 
lowing rules will be useful; but some of them are only general 



M 



242 SYNTAX [Chap. 

rules; for in a great many instances, the adjective, in Italian, 
may be placed either before or after the noun to which it 
relates. 

Ist. The numerical adjectives always come before the 
noun 3 as: 

linn Ktnto, | »n< stAte. 

un a6iiio, | ori« man. 

due fauciulli, ' two children. 

2d. The adjectives of numerical order are placed before 

the noun ; as : 

I 

il primo libro, I thejirst book. 

il tecindo viip^io, I the second voyage. 

la (frza persona, I the ( A ird person. 

But there is an exception to this rule, when we are speaking 
of distinguished people, such as king Sy queens, Sec; as : 

Georftio SecondOf I Oeorce the Second. 

Carlo Primo, I Charles the First. 

3d. The following adjectives come, generally, after the 
noun: buono, good, cattivo, ha.d, ^rande, great, pic- 
colo, little, bello, handsome, brutto, ugly, povero, poor, 
migliore^ better, peggiorCy worse, maggiore, greater, 
ricco, rich. But these may all come after the noun, 
when there is more than one adjective that relates to 
the noun ; as : 



an nf>no bu6no e generSso, i a good and generovs man. 

un principe grande e magnifieo, \ a great and magnificent prince. 



I 

vna signora btlla e ricca, | a handsome and rich lady. 



4th. Those adjectives that are derived from the names of 
nations, always come after the noun ; as i 

Tin gentilu6mo Italiano, | an Italian f^entleman. 

unadama /rtf^/^sf, j an JE^n^/isA lady, 

■a' armata Spagnu6la, I a Spanish fleet. 

5th. All adjectives that express colour, shape, taste^ and 
those that express any physical peculiarity in persons or 
things, come after the noun ; as : 



XIX.] 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



243 



Vino rozzOf 
an abito net'o, 
un fiutto soporito, 
nu fior bianco, 
unatavola rotonda, 
nno specchio ovale, 
una pianla odorifrra, 
nn uomo gobbo, 
un uamo zoppo. 



red wine. 

a black coat. 

a nell-flnvoured fruit. 

a nhite flower. 

a round table. 

an oval looking-glass. 

an odoriferous plant. 

a hunchbacked man. 

a lame man. 



6th. Adjectives, descriptive of the elements, and those 
used in speaking of the state of the air or weather, come 
after the noun ; as : 



tempo freddo, 
un lu6go umidof 
acqua bollentey 
un' aria sana, 
un fu6co urdente, 
un clelo sereno, 



cold weather. 
a damp place. 
hoilimj water, 
a nholesome air. 
a hot fire, 
a cltar sky. 



7th. The following adjectives almost always come after 
the noun, namely, neutro, neuter, generale, general, 
particolare, particufar, singolai'e, singular, intiero, 
entire,, languido^ languid, virtuoso, virtuous, vizioso, 
vicious, pigio, lazy, paurow, fearful, coraggioso, 
courageous, consider ah He , considerable, importuno, 
troublesome. 

8th. Whenever a participle passive is employed in an ad- 
jective sense, it must come after the noun ; as : 



un u6mdben conosciuto, 
una strada battiita, 



a well-known man. 
a beaten road. 



9th. All the adjectives ending in' ante and ente come, 
after the noun ; as : 



un uomo ben parlunte, 
un viso ridentef 



a well-speaking man. 
a laughing face. 



10th. Adjectives, ending in ele and He, do, generally, 
come after the noun ; as : 



un u6mo crudele^ 
un amico fedele, 
un atto puerile, 



a cruel man. 
R/ai tliful friend . 
a childish action. 



But these may come before the noun in a good many 
cases. 

' . M 2 



244 SYNTAX [Chap. 

11 til. The noun, in Italian, is sometimes placed between 
two adjectives j which is a thing that seldom occurs in 
our language. The following examples are from Boc- 
caccio: * 

A pi6 d' una bellissima fontiia e I At the brink of a very beauli/ul 
cMara, | and clear fountain. 

Un u<Sino di icfllerata vila c di I A man of ruscally and corrupt 

corolla, I life. 

V\\ fiero\i6mo txxn forte, \ A rrsolute and courogeout man. 

12th. The adjectives -when ending in issinio may come 
either before or after the noun ; as : 

an grandlssimojiiac^TC, •» 

or, > a Tcry great pleasure. 



un piacere grandlssimo, 

una bellissima fontiiia, 
■^ or, \ a very beantiful fountain. 

Tina font^iia belUssima, 



} 



Some of these must be considered as rules having many ex- 
ceptions; and the exception, in most cases, depends on taste. 
Writers frequently use the same adjective variously, sometimes 
after, sometimes before the noun, making the variety more for 
the sake of harmony than any thing else. 



i 



XX.] OF VERBS. 245 



CHAPTER XX. 



Syntax of Verbs. 

181. In speaking of the Etymology of Verbs, at Paragraph 
56, I noticed the different points that are to be considered as 
relates to this part of speech: the Conjugation, the Mode, the 
7'ime, the Number, the Person, the Participle, the Sort or 
Gender, and the Government. 

182. In Chapter IX (see Paragraph 5Q), I have explained 
the matter of conjugation. In this present Chapter, we 
shall consider, 1st, the mode, 2d, the time, 3d, the number 
and the person, 4th, the participle, and, 5th, the sort or gen- 
der. In Chapter XXI, we shall have to see something about 
the employment of avere and essere as auxiliaries ; and in 
Chapter XXII, I shall explain the matter oi government, 

\st. Of the Mode. 

183. The term mode, otherwise called mood, means simply 
manner. The different modes of verbs, therefore, are nothing 
more than the different manners, or luays, in which the verbs 
are used. The chief difficulty that presents itself here is, that, 
in a great many cases, we must use the verb in a different 
mode in the one language from what it should be in the other, 
although the idea intended to be expressed, in both languages, 
be precisely the same. Then we have, in our language, certain 
words called signs, which are employed in forming some parts 
of our verbs. These signs are, shall, will, may, might, should, 
wouldf were. To understand the right use of these, as used in 
our language, is a very difficult thing for foreigners ; and it is 



246 SYNTAX [Chap. 

fliflicult for lis, unless wc pay much attention to the matter, to 
be able properly to express the sense tliat is intended by them 
■when v\e come to use a foreign language. There are some 
other words, also, that arc used as signs, either of mode or of 
time, in our language; namely, the words must, can, could, 
on(jht, let. The sense intended by all these signs is, in Italian, 
generally expressed, not by using any words along with the 
verb having the same meaning as these signs of ours; but, by 
the verb undergoing various changes in its spelling. We, in 
a great many cases, preserve the one form of termination in the 
verb, while, at the same time, we can, by using the signs, con- 
vey th« different meanings that we intend. But, in Italian, the 
sense must, in most cases, depend entirely on the manner in 
which the verb itself terminates : and herein consists the diffi- 
culty that we have to encounter. 

184. We will now take the Infinitive, the Indicative, 
the Subjunctive, the Conditional, and the Imperative 
modes, and consider them in the same order as that in which 
tliey stand in the conjugations. The injinitive mode repre- 
sents the act or state of being, which it is intended to describe 
in the most general sense, and has, as to time, person, or num." 
be?', no sort of change to undergo. It is, therefore, properly 
called injinitive, since there is no end or restriction to its us^, 
■whether we be speaking in a time present, past, or to come, of 
the first, second, or third person, or of th« person in the singular 
or plural number. Thus we say, in both languages. 



Jo voijlio rAnTiiii?, 

7'U Vrlcvi PARTlllE, 

J-jjli vorru PARxiiiE, 
Efjlxno vdgliono partire, 



I wish to depart. 
Thou didst wi^h to depart. 
He will wish to depart. 
They wish lo depart. 



Here we see partire in Italian; and to depart in English, 
the infinitive used in both languages throughout. Here are 
the three times^ present, past, and future; the first, second, 
and third persons ; and of both the singular and, plural num- 
bers. Then, again, we may, in both languages, employ the 
infinitive mode in a way, that makes it become a sort of 
noun; as: 



XX.] OF VERBS. 247 

Parldre cos! non vi conviine, | To speak so dots not become you. 

Impaidre questo noa sard diQ'icile, 1 To learn this will not be difllcalt. 

Here tlie speaking and the learning are subjects of the verbs 
to become and to be, and these infinitives are, in fact, used here 
as nouns, representing the acts of going and of learning. Here 
the two languages are very much the same. But there are 
some cases in which the use of the infinitive is very different in 
Italian from what it is in our language. The* first thing that 
strikes our attention is, that while we are obliged to use the pre- 
position to, in almost all cases, as a sign of the infinitive mode, 
the Italians may use the infinitive without any such sign at all ; 
or, if they do use the sign, they sometimes use diy sometimes a, 
sometimes per, and sometimes da. To express our tOf thus 
employed before tlie infinitive, they generally use di or ct; but 
the other two prepositions are, also, sometimes employed. 

When an infinitive comes after any of tha verbs volere, to be 
willing ; sapere, to know ; fare, to do^ or make ; dovere, to be 
owing ;- lascidre^ to leave, or allow ; potere, to be able ; bisog- 
ndre, to be necessary or needful; bastdre, to be suflScient; 
lecere, to be lawful ; parerCy to appear ; convenire, to be fit or 
proper; piacere, to please; dispiacere, to displease; before 
the infinitive of a verb coming after these, no preposition is 
used ; as : . 



lo vos^lio parldre, 
Tu sai parldre, 
L'ho fatto venire, 
Egli dovrebbe anddre, 
Lasciategli paydre. 
Id non posse rimanere, 
Bisogna partire, 
Mi basta dire, 
Ci e lecito venire, 
Ti convien sperdre, 
Vi piace venire, 
Mi dibpiace parldre, 



I am willing to speak. 
Thou knowest how to speak. 
I have made him come. 
He ought to go. 
Allow him to pay. 
I cannot remain. 
It is necessary to depart. 
It is enough lor me to say. 
It is allowed us to come. 
It becomes thee to hope. 
It pleases you to come. 
It displeases me to speak. 



After certain verbs and certain adjectives, the preposition di 
is required ; as, sperdre, to hope ; comanddre, to command ; 
permettere, to permit; desiderdre, to desire; pregdre, to 
pray or entreat ; promettere, to promise ; impedirCf to prevent ; 
persuadere, to persuade; dissuadere, to dissuade^ avertire, 



248 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



to give notice; temtre, to fear; tent/ire, to try; and ca/)<ice, 
able; ccrtOf certain; contcntOj contented; risolutOj resolved. 
Thus, the Italians say, 



6prrn di vederir, 
Vj cuindndo <l\ djrmi, 
Gli ho promcsso ^'andare, 
lo Rono cnp;ice di fare, 
Si^tc routdnto di murire 7 



1 lio|»e to nee yon. 

I cuiiiriiund yuu to tell me. 

I have promihcd him to go. 

I am able to do. 

Arc you content to die ? 



Then, again, some verbs and adjectives require the preposition 
a before the infinitive coming after them; as, avere, to have; 
nndure^ to go ; cominciarc, to begin; co7)sigli/irc, to advise ; 
impar/irey to learn ; sforz/ire, to force ; esortftrCy to exhort ; 
prepaiiirsi, to prepare oneself; disporsiy to dispose oneself; 
apparccchiursi, to make oneself ready ; risotvere^ to resolve ; 
jfnitersi, to put oneself; occuparsi, to occupy oneself; and, 
pronto, ready; dcdito, addicted; accostum^ito, accustomed; 
atto, fit or adapted ; solilo, accustomed ; vichio, near. For 
example : 



Ella ha iuiparilto a rantire, 
Ho una letttra a srrivcre, 
Comincio ad int^ndere 1' Italiino, 
Vj coiixiglio a non parlire, 
Vi esorto ad aver pazienza, 
lo sono pronto a jiarlire, 
£gli i dcdito a giuocare, 



She has learned to sing. 

I have a letter to write. 

1 betjin to nn<1ersland the Italian. 

1 advise you not to speak. 

1 oxhort you to have patience. 

I am ready to depnrt. 

He is addicted to play. 



There are some instances in which the /o, in English, may be 
expressed by either the di or the a of the Italians. This is the 
case after the verbs consigliare, to advise ; esortdre, to exhort; 
persnadcre, to persuade ; forzdrc, to force ; mancdre, to fail; 
provdj-Cf to attempt ; precjdre, to pray, and some others. 

The preposition per, tvlien used before the infinitive, in the 
sense of our /o, means the same as our in order to. In this 
sense, the Italians use the/?er, when they say, for example. 



Vi-ngo/xT dlrvi, 

Compridmo la farina per t&tt^ del 

pane, 
Ha fatto questoper compiacermi, 



I come to tell yon. 

We boy flour to make br«ad. 

He has done this to please me. 



That is, in order to tell you, in order to make bread, in order 
to please me. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 249 

The preposition da is placed before the infinitive in some 
cases; and, when so used, serves to exTpiessJitness, p7'oprieti/j 
or obligation oi some sort; as: 

Queste non s6no c6se da dire, i These are not things to say, 

Questo e un libro da 16ggere, I This is a book to read. 

lo ho da parlarvi, ' 1 have to speak to you. 

The different manners of employing the infinitive mode, in 
Italian, are of great consequence. The infinitive is sometimes 
used instead of the indicative, sometimes instead of the subjunc- 
tive, sometimes instead of the imperative, sometimes instead of 
the active participle, and also instead of the passive participle. 
These manners of using the infinitive, I think it best to notice 
under the separate heads of those parts of the verb, in the stead 
of which the infinitive comes into use : therefore see Para' 
graphs 185, 191, 210, 248, and 254. 

185. We have next to consider the Indicative Mode; 
and, in doing this, we must, at the same time, consider the 
Subjunctive Mode, because it is only by the difference that 
appears between these two . modes, when compared to one an- 
other, that they are to be distinguished at all. The indicative 
mode has little in it, in Italian, that is different from the indi- 
cative in English ; yet we must, all along, have our attention 
fixed on that mode, in order to see in what cases the Italians 
differ from us, by using the subjunctive where we should use 
the iyidicative. The various ways of using the former of these, 
instead of the latter, as we should in English, is the great thing 
to be attended to as relates to the subject of mode. The indi- 
dicative mode is so called, because it indicates, declares, or 
points out, the act or state of being spoken of: it indicates or 
declares simply^ without giving us to understand that there 
exists any matter of uncertainty or doubt, or any thing condi- 
tional, on which the act or the state of being, described by the 
verb, depends. We might say, that the subjunctive is indica- 
tive^ inasmuch as the verb cannot be used at all without being 
intended to indicate the doing of something, or the being of 
something, in some sort of way. Yet, there is this difference, 
that, while the indicative indicates or declares simply the doing 
or the being of a thing, the subjunctive indicates, not simply, 

M 5 



250 SYNTAX [Chap. 

but with more or loss of dovht, uncertainty, or conditioHf or 
with some sort o( dependence on 8<iine circumstance, either ex- 
pressed or un(l( rstood. It is, therefore, called subjunctive, be- 
cause it declares, not simply and independently, like the indi- 
cative, but always with subordinacy, in such a way as shows 
that tlie verb is, when in this mode, more or less restricted in 
its indicative or declaratory power by something else. The 
subjunctive mode is said to be governed by certain verbs, and 
by certain conjunctions ; that is to say, after those certain verbs 
and conjunctions, we must use the verb following in the sub- 
junctive mode, and not in the indicative. We arc told that our 
word subjunctive comes from the I-atin verb sufjungOj which 
means to join or add under, or to bring under, or to place 
under dominion or in siihjection. Accordingly, when the verb 
is in the subjunctive mode, it may be said to be so because it 
is, according to circumstances, in a condition of having some- 
thing joined or added to it, or of being brought under, or placed 
under the dominion or in subjection to something else. This, 
as a general definition of the difference between these two 
modes, will be sufficient. We shall presently see, by examples 
to illustrate, how far the employment of these two modes is con- 
sistent with this definition. I will here observe, before proceed- 
" ing to compare the indicative with the subjunctive, that the 
Italians, like us, frequently use the infinite instead of the indi- 
cative. We say, for example, I know him to be a good man, 
instead of, 1 know that he is a good man. Thus, in Italian: 

Manifpstamente con6bbet'sser stnta I She clearly knew her dream to have 
vera la sua visiune. Boc. D. 1 been true. 

Vcgg6n Jo il re />o<er ci6 fare. I Seeing the king to be able to do 

Fio, N. 1 that 

Ella, credendo lui csser Gisippo, I She, believing him to be Gisippo, 

risposc di si. Buc. D. I answered yes. 

But sometimes the Italians make so free a use of the infinitive 
in this way, that their infinitive must, in many cases, be trans- 
lated by our indicative; as: 



Vedendo i grandi non poter resis- 
tere al popolo : il popolo anrora, 
vedendo non potcr resistere ai 
grandi, &c. Mac. P. 



'1 he great seeing that they were not 
able to resist the people : the 
people, again, seeing that they 
nere not able to resist the^^at. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 251 

Here we could not say, like the Italians, the great seeing not to he 
able, the people seeing not to be able^ I think it useful just to 
point out this manner of using the infinitive: practice will show 
to what extent it prevails. 

186. Now, in proceeding to show the difference between the 
indicative and the Subjunctive, I must remark, that I have fol- 
lowed the example of some grammarians in admitting a separate 
mode under the name of conditionaL When we have done 
with the subjunctive, I shall speak of this conditional mode. 
Many grammarians place the conditional and subjunctive under 
one head, calling them both by the one name of subjunctive , 
and considering what I have called the conditional as nothing 
more than a modification of time in the subjunctive. But the 
truth is, that there is no difference as to time to be distinguished 
in the using of the one or the other of these changes of the verb, 
and that what we have to attend to in the comparing of them, 
is the manner in which we are, in using the subjunctive or the 
conditional, to translate our signs sho2jld, would, and might. 
No form Of arrangement in the conjugation can be suflScient to 
make this matter clear without some explanation • therefore, I 
have made two modes, the subjunctive and the conditional, 
and these we shall compare with each other, after having first 
spoken of the subjunctive as compared with the indicative. 

187. The conjunctions that are said to ^vern the subjunc- 
tive are the following. 

AJinche, ^ In order tbat. 

Accib che, i 

Nonostdnte che. Notwithstanding. 

Conciossiacdsa che. In case that. 

Avanti che,^ 

Prima che, > Before. 

Anzi che, * 

Ameno che. Except, less, 

Bevcht, -J 

Ancorchk, > Although. 



Quantunque' 






Nel caso che. In case that 

Non che, Not that. 

Dove, In case, if. 

iiinche, •\ 

Finchh, > Till such times m, Itntil, in order Ihat 

Fino a tanto che, ^ 



252 SYNTAX [Chap. 

Quaudo, If, in rnse, whenever. 

Quandn che, Whenever, if, thoii^jh. 

Con pattn iht, -j 

A ronUiziiue che, J- Upon condition that, providing. 

J'uTcht, * 

Percht, In order that. 

Senza che, Without, unless. 

rrrtm,ache,. p^r fear that, lest. 

J)i tema che, J 

Ditto thf, Admitting that. 

Sopfidsto che, ^ 

Posto chf, '. Supposing, providing that, in case. 

Posto il caso che, J 

There are, perhaps, some others that, according to circum- 
stances, govern the subjunctive. The following are conjunc- 
tions that do not require the subjunctive, but are used before 
the verb ia the indicative mode. 

Poichi, When, since, seeing that, after. 

Junto che, -J 

Mentrc che, /■ As long as, whilst. 

Finchi, -' 

Di munitra che, ^ g^ ^^j^^^ 

Talmente che, J 

■P*^^' 1 Therefore. 
Adunque, 1 

Pure, Yet, albeit, although, moreover. 

Almlno, At least. 

Ikondimcuo, -j 

Nulladiwcno, ' Nevertheless. 

Nientediinttio, ^ 

luttiivta, y Neverthelessjvet, however, at all evenU. 

Tuttuvdlta, ) 

Contutiocib, 

Contuttuche, 

Cib iioti di mtno, ^ Nerertheless. 

Cid nan per laiito, 

Cib nonostunte, 

Sebbcne,- 

Although' 



or > 

Se bene, ' 



Forse che, Perhaps. 

Eccttto che, ^ £^^gpj ^jj^t, onless, saveth it. 

Se non che, j 

Percht, 

Percioccht, 1 jj^^^^^^ 

Impercioccht, t 

A causa che. 

Sec«ndo che, According as. 

Jnoltre, -. 

Oltre che, V Besides that. 

Ottradichi, J 



XX.] OF VERBS. 253 

Sicc6me, -^ ^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^^^^ 

Comechk, J 

Cioi, That is. 

dot a dire, That is to say. 

The verbs that govern the subjunctive are not many. They are 
those which express some passion ^ desire, or a strong feeling 
of some sort, such as, volere, to be willing ; desiderdre, to de- 
sire ; comanddre , to command ; pregdre, to pray ; suppli- 
care, to beseech ; richicdere, to require ; amdre, to like ; go» 
dere, to be glad; permetfei^e, to permit; defenders, to forbid; 
proibire, to prohibit ; esortdre, Xo exhort ; temtre, to fear ; 
dubitdre, to doubt ; sospettdre, to suspect ; consentire, to 
allow or consent; impedire, to prevent; aspettdre, to wait; 
pretendere, to pretend ; comportdre, to suffer or allow ; per- 
suadere, to persuade ; dissuadere, to dissuade ; and some few 
others. 

188. It will be perceived that the word che generally forms 
the final part of those conjunctions which govern the subjunc- 
tive mode. Sometimes the che is joined to the conjunction 
preceding it ; sometimes it stands as a separate word. The 
che, which means the same as our conjunction that, is re- 
garded as the peculiar sign of the subjunctive mode ; and gram- 
marians do, therefore, generally, in their conjugations of the 
verbs, insert this little word throughout the subjunctive; as: 



che io abbia, 
die tu abbia, 
che egli abbia, 



that I may have. 
thmt thou mayest have 
that he may have. 



I have omitted the che in the conjugations I have given (see 
from page 82 to page 89) ; and for this reason simply, that the 
insertion of the word, which was by no means necessary, 
would have required so much room as to frustrate my plan of 
exhibiting each whole conjugation on a single page. Observe, 
that, though the che is called the sign of the subjunctive, and 
though it does generally require to be used before that mode, 
there are cases in which the subjunctive may be used unaccom- 
panied by any such sign, as we shall presently see. 
189. Let us first take some examples of the conjunctions. 



254 



SYNTAX 



[Chap, 



Afrinrh<> io/arrirf, 
Aiirorchc io prnsi, 
Nel rano rhr io/rircio, 
J)i trma die io il dica, 
ArriAclie io finrli, 
Perrhi^ io /accio, 
I'liirhi^ io pfitto, 
l)i nianiera c)ie io/inccioj 
Forie cJie io dico, 
OUre ch« io parlo. 



In order that I may do. 

AI(h(iU)(h I may think. 

In case I may do. 

For ft-ar that I may xaij. 

In order Ihnt 1 mat/ sprak. 

Recaatte I do. 

Se«ini; that I think. 

80 that I do. 

Perhnpn t iny. 

Besides that I ipeak. 



Here the two languages are very much the same. With the 
first five conjunctions, both require the verb in the snhjunctivey 
and, with the five latter, both require tiie verb in the indica- 
tive. But it sometimes occurs to the contrary, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : 



Admittin;; that I did it. 
Although I did it, 
Not that I said to him, 
Notwithstanding I sjiokt to her, 



Dato che io Wfacisai. 
Bench6 io il/rtccs«i. 
Non che io pli dicissi. 
Nonostante che io le parlasti. 



These conjunctions, dato che^ benchc, non che, nonostdnte 
che, like others given in the foregoing list, require the verb to 
be in the subjunctive. We, in English, have frequently the 
choice of putting the verb in either the one or the other mode: 
I may say, for instance. 

Admitting that 1 did it, 
Although I did it j 

OH, 

Admitting that I might do it, 
AUhough I might do it : 

yet, if the verb be intended to relate strictly to something in a 
time past, this manner of expression would be very formal in 
English ; and, indeed, the might, as used here, would convey 
the idea of the possibility of doing in a very general sense, as 
to time, and these examples would mean, properly speaking. 



Again, to say, 



Admitting that I might do it, at any time. 
Although I might do it, at any lime. 



Not that I might say to him. 
Notwithstanding I might speak to her. 



The use of the sign might, in all these instances, is, certainly, 



XX.] or VERBS. 255 

English ; but the might is not here necessary to our language, 
as a sign of the subjunctive mode, and it is but a matter of 
choice with us to put the verb thus in the subjunctive or not. 
Tlie Italians, however, have not this power of choosing : they 
could not say, 

Dato clie loWfeci. 
Benclie io W/tci. 
Non che io gli dissi. 
Nonostante che io le parldi. 

The conjunctions here absolutely govern the verb, obliging it to 
be in the subjunctive mode ; and in whatever way the verb, 
in our language, were used iii translating these phrases, whe- 
ther we were, according to our meaning, to put the verb in the 
indicatire or the subjunctive, it must always be in the subjunc- 
tive in Italian. We might translate the first of these, for 
example, in four different ways: 

j Admitting that I did it, 

Dato che ioil/acesst, < A.lmitting that I m»>A< do it, 

I Admitting that! should dn it, 
V. Admitting tliat I were to do it. 

And so on, in the same manner, with the other four phrases. 
Here we see the Italian, io il facessi, translated by, I riirf it, 
I might do it, I should do it, I were to do it. The first puts the 
verb in the indicative ; the second and third, with the signs might 
and shouldy put the verb in the subjunctive; and then comes 
our word were, followed by the infinitive, to do ; so that, our did, 
might do, should do, were to do, are, at once, all expressed, in 
Italian, by the single word facessi. Further on, I shall have 
to speak more particularly of these signs, and others, besides, 
that are used with our verbs. In this place I have only to no- 
tice the power that certain Italian conjunctions have of requir- 
ing the verb to be in the one or the other mode, the indicative 
or the subjunctive. Though the distinction, which is made 
between these two modes, is, generally speaking, founded on 
principle, it must, nevertheless, be confessed, that, in some 
instances, the verb is required to be in the subjunctive, in 
Italian, when there is no apparent reason for its being so. When 
we say, 



256 



SYNTAX 



[Chap, 



For fear thnt I may say it, 
In order that I may sprak, 



Di tema che io lo diea. 
Acciorhe io parli. 



Here the verb is as reasonably roqiiirod to be in the subjunctive, 
in Italian, as it is in our language, and, in both, the subjunc- 
tive is required. Wc could not say, 

. For fear that I ioy it, 

In order that I speak, 

without leaving to be understood our may, as a sign of the sub- 
junctive mode: and the conjunctions fur fear that, in order 
that, giving us to understand a something subjoined to the verb, 
do, as our ear tells us, require the verb in the subjunctive. Just 
the same is it with the Italian, wherein the conjunctions di 
tema che and accib che answer to our ybr fear that and in 
order that, and require the verbs to be dica and parli, in the 
subjunctive, and not dice and parlo, in the indicative. But 
there are some Italian conjunctions which, though they govern 
<the subjunctive, do not, by analogy with our language, govern 
that mode upon any principle at all. For example: 



Forse che io pli dissi, 
Oltre che io le parlui, 
Non che io gli dictssi, 
^onostante che io \e parlassi, 



Perhaps I said to him. 
Besides that I spoke to her. 
Not that I said to him. 
Motwithstanding I spoke to her. 



Here, after forse che, perhaps, and oltre che, besides, the 
verb is in the indicative, in the Italian as well as in our lan- 
guage ; but, the non che and nonostdnte che require the verb 
in the subjunctive, in Italian, while we, in English, have it in 
the indicative, Xhon^h. our conjunctions not that and notwith- 
itandvig precisely correspond in their meaning with the noa 
che and 7ionost(inte che of the Italians. This, then, will be 
suflScient, as relates to the governiiig of the mode by conjunc- 
tions. It would require many words to explain, if it were at 
all capable of explanation, why, after oltre che, we must use 
the indicative, and, after nonostdnte che, the subjunctive. 
The thing to be attended to here is, to know which are the 
conjunctions that do absolutely require the verb to be in the 
subjunctive, and which do not. There are some conjunctions, 
however, which, as relates to their governing of verbs, will re- 



XX.] 



OF VERBS, 



257 



quire a particular notice. Observe, first, that our word although 
or though is expressed, in Italian, by the different words seh^ 
bene, or se bene,benchc,ancorchc, and quantunque. Incases 
where we, in English, should employ the indicative after our 
althoughy the Italians use sebbene or se bene ; as: 



Sebben questi mirdcoli sono famili- 
4ri alia Friincia ; &c. Ben L. 

e questo dardo, 

Se bene egli non ha ]^ puntad' oro, &c, 

Tas. a. 



Although these miracles are familiar 
to France. 

And this dart, though it has not the 
point of gold. 



Here the verbs to be and to have are in the indicative, because 
the circumstances of being and having are both stated posi' 
tively. But, when we should put the verb in the subjunctive 
after our although or though, then the Italians use one of the 
other words, benche, ancorch^, and quantunque ; as : 



Beuch^ io sia felice non sono 

ricco, 
Ancorch^ egli fosse ricco, non era 

prudente, 
Quantunque vol lo credilite non 

^ vero, 



Althou>^h I may be happy, I am 

not rich. 
Though lie might be rich, he was 

not prudent. 
Although you may believe it, it is 

not true. ' 



This is the general rule, as to the manner of translating our 
word although or though. But, though sebbene or se bene 
can never be used to govern the subjunctive mode, the other 
three words are very frequently used in cases where we, in 
English, must put the verb in the indicative ; as : 



E bcnch^ 1* intento suo non fosse di 
far graude la Chiesa, &c. 

Mac. P. 

E bench ^ surgcsse qudlche volta un 
Papa animoso, come fu Sisto, &c. 

Mac. p. 

— ancorche/osse Orlando 

Di sangue tiuto, &c . Ari. O. F. 

Ancorcbft per mantenerlo/acrsse molte 
costituzioni, &c. Mac. D. 

Quantunque il simular sia le piii volte 

Ripreso,ediadimalameuteindici, &c. 

^ Ari. O.F. 

Quantunque ci6 che ragiona Pampi- 
nea sia ottimamente detto, &c. 

Boc. D. 



And although his intention was not 
to make the Church great. 

And though there sometimes arose 
a spirited Pope, as was Sixtus. 

Although Orlando was stained with 
blood. 

Although to maintain it (the state) he 
(Solon) made many constitutions. 

Although dissimulating is most times 
blamed, and gives indications of a 
bad mind. 

Although that which Pampinia relates 
is very well said. 



258 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



The meaning, \n all these examples, is decidedly indicative ; 
but, as the conjunctions benchdy ancorchd , and quantunquCj 
govern the subjunctive, the verbs are all employed in that 
form. There are, however, many instances of benche used 
with the indicative. After ancorchd and quaniunque we 
must never use the indicative. But, benche may be used 
with the indicative, as well as with the subjunctive; as in 
these examples : 



Bench' area gli occbi di lagrime prujjni, 
&c. Ari. O. F. 

Benche le ration! che v' invitano tono 
tauto cLiiru e potciili, &c. 

Gui. S. 

Bench^ la gcnte ci6 non sa, nc credt. 

Pet.T. 



AIthou;;h she had her eyes foil of 
tears. 

Althou!;h the rrasons which inTite 
you are so clear aud powcilul. 

Though the people neither knojv nor 
btlieve that. 



The word perchc sometimes means because^ and some- 
times in order that ; and dove or ove, sometimes mesms whercj 
and sometimes in case, or if. In the sense of because, and 
where, these words stand with the indicative ; but, when 
taken in the other acceptation, they require the subjunctive ; as: 



Perch^ tu prepari V inimo ad aiutir- 
mi dove il bisugno lo riccrc/u. 

Mac. C. 

E dove tu mi promilla sei grazie, io 
U Tiro ascendere a questo on6re. 

Fio. N. 



In order that thoo maytnt prepare thy 
mind to assist me in ca&e need may 
require it. 

And if thoo nilt promise me six fa- 
Tour.x, I will make thee rise to this 
honour. 



The word quando, also, is sometimes used in the sense of 
when, and sometimes in that of in case, whenever, if, or sup- 
posi?i(j. When used in the latter sense, it requires the verb in 
the subjunctive ; as: 



Voile il patto, che quando ei restusse 
vittorioso, Carlo gli fosse dalo per 
prigioniero. 

SoA. N. 

Perciocch^ anc6ra il bene, quando sia 
sorercbio, spidce. D. Ca. G. 

Quando vol voglidte, io tI porterb 
gran parte della via a cavdllo. 

Boc.D. 



The compact required, that in case he 
should remain -victorious, Charlea 
should be given to him for a pri- 
soner. 

Because even wealth, whenever it it 
excessive, displeases. 

If youare nii/insr, I will take yea a 
great part of the way on horseback. 



£ quando queste opiDi6Bi fistero I And supposing these opiniMU were 
false, &c. Mac. D. I fals«. 



XX.] OF VERBS. ' 259 

Some of the words that I have put in the foregoing lists of con- 
junctions are, properly speaking, adverbs. Prima che, uvanti 
che, ami che, before ; tanto che., mentre che,^nchc, until, or 
as long as; quando, when ; dove, where ; these are all adverbs 
of time, excepting dove^ which is an adverb of place. But it 
is necessary to notice these words here, as they have to do with 
government of mode. Quando and dove are subject, as we 
have seen, to various meanings ; and, when they have the 
power of governing verbs, they have the nature of conjunctions. 
Prima che, avanti che^ and anzi che, govern the subjunctive : 
as. 



Prima die io fSssi veniito, 
Avanti che cgli mi dicesse, 
Anzi die ella av{sse linito, 



Before I wax come. 
Letoie lie told me. 
Before she had finished. 



Here the verb must be in the subjunctive. Nevertheless, we 
must say, 



Subito che io/«i venuto, 
J)opo che egli mi disse^ 
Poiche ella tbbe iinito, 



As soon as I wax come. 
After he told me. 
When she had finished. 



We must use fSssi, dicessi, avesse, in the three former in- 
stances, and fuiy disse, ebbe, in the three latter ; yet, there is 
nooiher reason for this, than thatprma cAe, avanti che, and 
anzi chef govern the subjunctive, while the adverbs subito che, 
dopo che, and poiche, like many others, do not require the sub- 
junctive mode any more than our English words that correspond 
with them. 

190. We have next to consider the verbs, which have the 
power of governing the subjunctive mode in other verbs. These, 
as I before said, are such verbs as express some passion ^ desire, 
or a strong feeling of some sort. But, since it is difficult, in 
a few words, precisely to define the nature of those verbs vvhich 
govern the subjunctive, we may say, that they are such verbs 
as express some intent or inclination of the mind in one per- 
son or thing, relative to some other person's or thing's doing 
something, or being, in some way or other. For example : 

lovoglio chetuparit, I l&mniillingiiisWhoM. may est speak, 

Ta desideri cb' io sia ricco, , | Thou desirtsl that I may be rich. 



200 SYNTAX [Chap. 

Here the verbs volcrc, to wish, or be willing, and dcsidcrnrCy 
to desire, express the intent or inclination of the mind in the 
one person, and the verbs parl/tre, to speak, and issere, to be, 
which are governed by the two other verbs, describe the doing 
and being with respect to which the intent or inclination ex- 
pressed by the governing verbs exists. Thus, again, thfe 
Italians say : 



Comando die voi vevghtatf^ 
Prp^o cJie io parlassi, 
Siipplico die voi mi diciule, 
Kichiese chf. fosse co'i'i, 
PeriD^tto che voi andiate, 
Oidino che noi seguitassimo^ 
Bramai die ella venisse. 



I command that yon matj eome. 
H<" bfRi^ed that 1 mi'jht speak. 
I entreat that you wioy (dl me. 
He required that it ini'jhl be so. 
I permit ttiat you vnay go. 
He ordered that we might follow. 
I u ished that she might come. 



Some of these are barely translatable by our subjunctive mode, 
a$ I have translated them above. To say, I command that you 
MAY COME, is hardly as good English as it would be to say, 
/ command you to come. In many cases, it sounds equally 
well, in our language, to use either tbe subjunctive, as above, 
or the infinitive. / xuished that she might come, or, / 
wished her to come, are both equally good English, as our 
ear tells us; but, it would not do in Italian to say, bram6i ella 
VENIRE. Nevertheless, we must observe, that there are certain 
cases in which the Italians use the infinitive, though the pre- 
ceding verb be one of those which govern the subjunctive. 
Whenever the second verb expresses something relative to the 
person, which is the subject of the^rs^ verb also, that is to say, 
when there is but one person for the subject or nominative of 
both verbs, then the second verb is put in the injinitive, just 
as it is in English ; as: 

Io vo(;\io parldre, i I am willing to speak. 

Tu desideri d' andure, I Thou desirest to go. 

EgVi godixa di restdre, I He was glad <o remain. 

Here voglio and parldre have both io for their subject ; desi- 
deri and andure have tu ; and godcva and reslare have egli. 
But, if we give each verb a separate subject, then we must use 
the subjunctive : 

Jo voglio che egli parli, i I am willing that he may spenk. 

Tu desideri che io vada, I Thou desirest that I may go. 

Egli godcva che noi restusiimo, I He was glad that we n»i/;A(r«noin. 



XX.] 



or VERBS. 



261 



Instead of saying, that he may speak, that I may go, that we 
might remain, we should rather say, for him to speak, for 
me to go, for us to remain. But the Italian knows nothing of 
this sort of turn ; our for, thus used along with the infinitive 
mode, cannot be turned literally into Italian ; but we must, in 
such cases, have recourse to the che, putting the verb following 
in the subjunctive. Then, again, there are some verbs, which 
sometimes have the verb following in the subjunctive and some- 
times in the infinitive. These verbs are, pregure, to beg or 
pray; comandare, to command ; penwt/^ere, to permit; swp- 
plicare, to beseech ; raccomanddrs, to recommend ; commet' 
#ere, to enjoin or command; consig I idre, to ^.dvise; esorture^ 
to exhort; persuadere, to persuade ; and perhaps a few others. 



Vi pve£fo che and'iate, 

Vi piego d ' auddre, 

Vi comando che/accidte, 

Vi comando (Wfdre, 

Vi jievvaitto che parlidte, 

Vi permetto d\ parldre, 

Vi supplico che m' ascoltxdte, 

Vi supplico d' ascoltdrmi, 



I beg that yoa may go. 

I beg yoH to yo. 

I command that you may do, 

I command you to do, 

I permit that you inay speak. 

I permit you to speak. 

I entreat that you inay listen tome. 

I entreat you to listen to me. 



Here the pronoun, in the instances where the subjunctive is 
"used, is not in the nominative Case, as our you is in the 
English ; but, then, this is because the preposition a is to be 
understood : vi prego che andiate, that is, prego a voi, I beg 
to you ; and, to translate the phrase literally, to you I beg that 
you may go. 

191. There are some of the verbs, called Im personals 
(see them particularly noticed at Paragraph 268), which 
govern the subjunctive mode. These verbs are, bisogndrey 
to be necessary or needful i convenire, to be proper, suitable, or 
fit; occorere, to happen, to be needful, or necessary; bastdre, 
to be sufficient; giovdre, to be pleasant, profitable, or of use. 
These are sometimes used with the verb following in the infi- 
nitive, as in English. For example : 



Bisogna aver pazi^nza, 
Conviene isser giiisto, 
Gli acc6rse di parldre, 
}iasta impurdre questo, 
Chegiova/M^r^^n? 



It is necessary to have patience. 
It is proper to 6e just. 
It happened to him to speak. 
It is sufficient to learn this. 
Of what use is it to fix * 



262 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



In these examples, the verbs avcre, essere, parlarey imparurCf 
and fuggirVf have no noun or pronoun as their nominative. 
AVhen this is the case, the verbs following bisogiidre, convenire, 
occurrere, basture^ and rjiovdre, are not required to be io the 
subjunctive ; but, if the case be otherwise, then the subjunctive 
Diode must be employed ; as : 



BisfSi^na ch' io dbbia pnzi^nza, 

Convi^oe che tu sia f^iu.sto, 
Non orcorreche egli mi parli, 

Basta che noi im}>ariutno questo, 
Non giuva die \o\fug<jiate, 



It is necessary for me to have pa- 
tience. 

It is pioper for you to he just. 

It is not necessary for him to 
speak to me. 

It i.vyunicie)«t for us to le.trn tliis. 

It is of no use for you to flee. 



We might, here, use the pronouns mij ti, gli, ci, vi ; putting 
the second verb in the infinitive : as, 

Mi bis6t>na aver pazicnza. 
7't convienesser giiisto. 

But then, here the pronouns are not the nominatives of avere 
and esserc ; for what these mean is, literally, to havCspatiejice 
is necessary to, or for me; to he just is proper to, or for ' 
THEE. We must observe, therefore, that there must be some 
noun or pronoun standing as a nominative to the verb follow- 
ing these impersonals, in order for stfch following verb to be in 
' the subjunctive, 

192. The verb partre, to appear, governs the subjunctive. 
But this is only when partre is used impersonatly ; as : 



Vi pare che Pamela Io sappia ? 

GoL. C. 

Sul lito un bosco era di querce ombr6se, 
Dove oguor par cbe f ilomena /)>a{7>ia,&c. 

Abi. O. F. 

A te parch'ognicosaaddormentata sia. 

GuA, p. F. 

Non par^'va, che in Fir^nze alcuna 
cagi6ae di scindalo/os^e rimdsa. 

Mac. S. 

Parevarai che ella fosse pi ill che la 
neve biauca. Boc. D. 



I 



Does it appear to you that Pamela 
knows it ? 

On the shore \vas a wood of shady 
oaks, where it appears that Philo- 
mel always wails. 

It appears to thee that every thing' it 
in sleep. 

It did not appear that there had re- 
mained in Florence any cause of 
scandal. 

It appeared to me that she was more 
white than anow. 



The verb sembrare, to seem, or to appear, also governs the 
subjunctive, when used, like partre in the above examples, im" 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



263 



'personally. But, these verbs may have the verb following in 
the infinitive mode, when they are not used impersonally ; as : 



Mi pare che egli /accia, 
Xgli mi pare cssrre viato, 
Ali sembrava che fosse vinto, 

Egli mi sembrava/<irf, 



It appears to me that he dots. 
He appears to me to he conquered. 
It seemed to me that he mas con- 

quered. 
He seemed to me to do. 



In the first and third example, far ere and sembrdre are used 
impersonally, and, as we see, require the verb following to be 
in the subjunctive ; but in the second and fourth examples, 
these verbs have egli, he, for their nominative, and, like the 
English, have the verb following in the infinitive mode. 

193. It sometimes occurs that an adjective has the power 
of requiring the verb to he in the subjunctive mode. This hap- 
pens in such cases as those, in which we use our word it before 
the verb to be, with the infinitive of a verb coming after : as, 
it is right for me to speak, it is proper for you to go - and so 
forth. Thus, in Italian : 



E fdcile che egli scrtva, 
E giusto che vol state mandito, 
E possibile che noi andidmo, 
£ difficile che ella parli, 
Non e rogioaevole che voi/acci- 
dte cosi, 



It is easy for him to write. 
It is just for you to be sent. 
It is possible for us to go. 
It is difficult for her to speak. 
It is riot reftsooable for you to da 
so. 



If there be no noun or pronoun used as the nominative to 
the verb coming after in such cases, then the Italians put that 
verb in the infinitive, as we should in English ; as : 



E ficile scrivere cosi, 



I It is easy to write thus. 



' 194. The verbs domanddre, to ask or inquire; credere, to 
think or believe ; sapere, to know, frequently govern the sub- 
junctive of a verb following them ; and particularly the verb 
domanddre ; as : 



Piacendogli molto i modi del fanciullo, 
domandb chi egli/osse. Bee D. 

Domando la regina qual fosse la ca- 
gi6ne del loro rom6re. Bqc. D. 

Cominci6 piacerolmtnte a ragiondre, 
e domandare chi fosse, donde ve- 
nisse, e dove ariddsse, Boc. D« 



The manners of tbechild pleasing him 
muck, he asked who he was. 

The queen asked what was the cause 
of their noise. 

He began to converse agreeably, and 
to ask who he was, whence he came, 
aod whither be was goinff. 



264 SYNTAX [Chap. 

DoniADdo »A alcuno cohoseiiae quel i He inquired if any ooe knnv that 
ribaldo. hoc. D. | rugue. 

Chi crcd6te vol che io tia ? Gui,. C. | Who do you think that I am f 

Quando i pasK'iri credian ch' io/oM* i Whrn the shepherds belicTed that I 
Visto dal lupo, &c. [Halo I had bren seen by the wolf. 

Tab. a. I 

Non sapendo essi dore tXfotsfro. I They not knowing where they n'tre. 

Boc. D. I 

It is the uncertainty , or doubt, which is sometimes intended 
to be expressed when these verbs are used, that causes them to 
govern the subjunctive of the verb following; and this uncer- 
tainty, or doubt, is much more commonly thus expressed by the 
Italians than by us. We might say, He inquired if any one 
WIGHT KNOW that rogue, "Who do you think I may be. 
They not knowing where they might be; but, though we 
do, at times, use the subjunctive, in this way, such a practice 
is more common to the Italian than it is to our language. 
Again, with the verbs vedtre, to see, and conoscere, to know: 



lonon vedoperch«i ecli sia veniito, 
lo vedo ben perche cgli t veniito, 
lo non con6sco chi egli sia, 
lo cond^co clii egli i. 



I do not see why he is come. 
I .-ee wf II why he is come, 
1 do not know who he it. 
I know wJio he it. 



Here, in the first and third examples, the uncertainty or doubt 
is obvious, and, consequently, the Italian verb is in the sub- 
junctive ; while, in the second and fourth examples, the seeing 
and the knowing are expressed positively and independently 
of any thing like a dmibt. 

195. The verbs temtre, to fear; sospeitdre or sospicure, to 
suspect ; dubitdre, to doubt, always require the verb coming 
after them to be in the subjunctive, if the word che precede 
that verb ; as : 



Temo che egli non sia felicc, 
Diibito eh? ella non sia in casa, 
Sospetto che voi non 1' abbiiite, 



I fear he i* not happy. 

I dnubt w hether she be a* fiome. 

I suspect that yoa have it not. 



196. The conjunction che is sometimes omitted in Italian, 
by an ellipsis, after words governing the subjunctive mode. 
This, however, does not frequently happen. Examples : 

N^ Toglio sui ripatata pretnnzi6ne, I Nor do I wish it to be thoDgbt pre* 
se, &c. Mac. P» 1 sumptioD, if . . . 



XX.] OF VERBS. 265 

Coslui 6 si 9ci6cco, che io ho paura | Tliis man is so foolish that I am 
non 5rMns<as«eogni cosa. Mac. C. | alraid he might spoil cyeiy tiling. 

Non ^ possibile o/>er j;io hene insiiine. j It is not possible for them to work 

Mac. p. 1 well together. 

Gnarddndosi semprenonMaiaHos* ac- I Taking care always that Maratto 
coraesse della cagl6ne. Boc. D. I might not perceive the cause. 

Acci6 ripardssi lo scandalo che io I In order that I m'ght remedy the 
av6vadato a tutta 1' Italia. I scandal which I had given to all 

GAt. L. I Italy. 

Accio non coglicsse il frutto della sua t In order that he might not reap the 
mala elezi6ue. Mac. P. | fruit of his bad choice, 

Tem^ttero non questa cosa si risa- i They feared that this thing might be 
pcsse. Boc. D. 1 known. 

These, according to regular construction, should be, ne voglio 
CHE sia ; CHE 71071 (juastcisse ; CHE opirino bene ; che Ma- 
ratto non s'accorgesse; accio che ripardssi; accio cue 
non cogliesse ; che questa cosa non si rieapesse. 

197. The word che has, as we have seen in the etymology 
and in the syntax of pronouns, various meanings. One of its 
great uses is that of which we have just been speaking; niunely, 
the use of it before, the verb in the subjunctive mode, Biit 
che, as preceding the subjunctive, requires some further notice. 
The subjunctive is used after che, when che comes after an 
adjective in the superlative degree: as, 

Questa signora d la piii bella donua | This lady is the most beautiful wo- 
che io conosca, I , man that I know. 

It would not do to say, 

la pill bella donna che io conosco. 

But, if we were to omit the che, or, if the superlative were 
omitted without omitting the che, the verb should be in the 
indicative : as, 

lo conosco]a pile beila donsa, I 1 know ihe most beautiful wom^n. 

La bella donna che io conosco, I The beautiful woman that I know. 

In the first of these examples, the che does not relate to the 
noun donna, nor does our that relate to the noun woman. 
There is, here, something left to be understood in both lan- 
guages. What is meaned is : questa signora e la piil bella 
donna, paragonata a qualsivoglia altka donna, or, 



2G6 SYNTAX [Chap. 

QUALSIVOGLIA ALTttA BELLA DOSV Af che io COnOSCa ; thlS 

lady is the 7nost beautiful luoy/ian, compared to any 

OTHEIl woman, or, A2iY OTHER BEAUTIFUL WOMAX, 

that I know. This, or something like it, is what is here 
intended ; and, here, the relative cAe, that, and the verb 
conoscay know, have reference to the qualsivoylia altra donna, 
or bclla donna t any other wonaan, or beautiful woman; and 
not to the piii hella donnay most beautiful woman. The rela- 
tive and the verb, the che and the conosca, may clearly be per- 
ceived to refer to something understood, though not expressed, 
besides the peii bella donna: and, if we explain it in this way, 
there certainly is a reason for the verb's being put in the sub- 
junctive, and not in the indicative, after the superlative degree 
and the che following it: 

Questa signora 6 la piii belladonna I This lady is the most beautiful w 
che io couosca, I maa ihall may know. 

That is to say, if we express, in full, what is meaned, 

paragonata a qualsiioglia altra don- 1 compared to any other notnan, or 
na, or hella donnn, che io conosca, \ beautiful Tvoman, that I ma'j know. 

In using the verb to knoWy here, it is not our intention to 
say, positively, that we do know any other woman, as com- 
pared with whom the particular one we are speaking of is beau- 
tiful in a superlative degree. 

This, then, is what we have to observe, that, when the sub- 
junctive is thus used after the adjective in the superlative 
degree and the che following it, the che, and the verb caused 
to be in the subjunctive, do not refer to the noun to which the 
adjective belongs, but to some other thing, which, by ellipsis, 
is left to be understood. If we look again at the other exam- 
ples before given, 

Io cenoscol& piu bella donna, 
La bella donna che io conosco ; 

in these we see the verb in the Indicative in both cases. In 
the first, the superlative is employed ; but, then there is no che 
to express that the superlative is employed relatively. In the 



XX.] 



or VERBS. 



267 



second, there is no superlative, the adjective being in the posi- 
tive degree, and the cJie used in this example relates to the 
noun do7ina, which, as before explained, it would not do, if the 
adjective were in the superlative degree. If we examine the 
following examples, we shall see, that the use of the sub- 
junctive, which appears in all of thejn, perfectly agrees with 
what I have been saying. 



Erail piii contento e gioval giovane 
che Vitesse a que' giorni. 

G. Goz. N. 



He was the raost happy and jovial 
youth that lived at those days. 



Ed uno dei ^fii potent Jrim6dj che <i6- | And one of the most powerful rcme- 
fcia unprincipe contro alle congiiire I dies that a prince has against con- 

^, noaesser odiato. Mac. P. I spiracles is, not to be hated. 



Voi m' av6terenduta la piu infelice 
donna che mai vitHse. Soa. Is. 

Questa k la maggior ricreazione ch* 
io dbbia. Bkn. L. 

Ma questa mi pare la piu struna cosa 
che mai si udlsse^ Mac. C. 



Amor venule. 



Amor servo dell' oro, e 11 maggior 
Che produca la terra, &c. [mo^tro 

Tas. a. 

Perb la mi^Zor fort^zza chesia,enon 
6sser odiato dal p6polo. 

Mac. p. 

Zerbin facea lepiit mimii/ prove 
Che mai/acesse di sua eta garzone. 

Ari. O.F. 

Io non scno il piu pover6tto che sia 
al mondo. C. Goz. L. 



You have rendered me the most un- 
happy woman that ever lived. 

This is tlie greatest recreation that I 
have. 

But this appears to me the most 
strange thing that one ever hiard. 

Venal Love, Love the slave of gold, is 
the greatest monster that the earth 
produces. 

Therefore, the best fortress that is, i& 
not to be hated by the people. 



Zerbin did the most miraculous deeds^ 
that a youth of his age ever did. 



I am not the most poor man that 
there is in ihe world. 



When the relative pronoun refers to a noun having a negative 
before it, the verb following must be in the subjunctive : as. 



Non conosco veruna donna che 

sia piii bella di lei, 
Non c' e uomo eke sia piCi sdrio 

di lui, 



I do not know any lady that i*- 
more beautiiul tlian she. 

There is not a man that is more 
wise than he. 



But, observe, if there w^ere no negative before the noun to 
which the relative pronoun refers, the verb coming after the 
relative would be in the indicative : 

N 2 



268 SYNTAX. [Chap. 



Conn^ro iinn <1ouna chf i piii 

bclla di Ici, 
C £ uii uoino cAe I piC) savio di 

Jui, 



I know A Ind) wlio u more beau- 
tiful than ftlio 

There is a man who u more wise 
timn he. 



Here we see the subjunctive in the first examples, and the indi- 
cative in the latter, and the diflference is occasioned solely by 
there being a negative in the one case, and no negative in the 
other. Our word ayiy, we must observe, would always be either 
expressed or understood in cases where the subjunctive is thus 
used in Italian : I do not know ai y lady that is more beautiful 
than she ; There is no man (that is, not ayiy man) that is more 
wise than he. The person or thing, therefore, represented by 
the noun that comes after the negative, is spoken of in a man- 
ner less tending to identify y and in a sense less restricted^ 
than when the noun is not preceded by the negative : I do not 
know any lady (that is, any lady, be sh» whosoever she may) ; 
I know a lady (that is, a lad)% whom I could point out). 
Just the same with the other examples: There is not a man, 
&c., There is a man. Sic. Here, then, we see something like 
a reason for the employment of the su])junctive in the one case, 
and the indicative in the other, when the Italians say, 

I do not know any Indy that way be more beautiful than she, 
1 know a lady who is more beautiful than she : 

There is not a man that may be more wise than he, 
There is a man who is more wise than he. 

In the following examples, we see the negative requiring the 
subjunctive after it, the relative pronouns che and quale coming 
after tlie negative, just as is the case with the examples before 
given : 

*E non ci c- cosa che coDSJirmi se stessa I And there is nolbinc; that consumes 
quanto la liberalita. Mac. P. i itself so much as libewility. 

Offginuil non v' lia pcrsf'jna di senno | Now-a-days there is no person of 
c\\eprisli piu alciina lede a terrori j sense that any longer gives faith to 



^ly^lti. SoA. N. I such terrors. 

Is'on ci lia u<')mo, il qual non ami i There is not a man who loves not to 
d'fcsserfelice. Soa.N. | be happy. 



>"ii!no aTeva, die a lei strettamcnte 
congiunto/('Sse di suPgue. 

SoA. N. 



She had no one that nas closely re- 
lated to her by blood. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 269 

It does not, however, require that there should be either an 
adjective in the superlative degree, or a negative, before the cite 
or the relative quale, in order for the verb following to be in the 
subjunctive. For example: 

Vo^lio sposdre una ragdzza che ,^ 

e bella, I I wish to marry agiil whon'hai'.d- 

Voglio sposare una ragdzza che \ some. 

sia bella, 

Diamoil denaro atl una persona ,^ 

che ne sa il valore, ( Let us give the money to a person 

Diamo il denaro ad una persona i who /cnovy*- the value of it. 



che ne sdppia il valore, 

Cerco un maestro che inscrjna ^ / 

I'ltaliano, I I seek a master who teaches 

Cerco un maestro che instgni | Italian. 

I'ltaliano, ^ 



Debbidmo onorare 1' uomo il 

quale h virtuoso, | We ought to honour the man who 

Debbidmo onordie 1' u6mo il ( is virtuous. 

quale sia virtuoso, "^ 

Here, where the verb is in the indicative, we are supposed to 
be speaking of a particular girl, that we know is handsome, of 
a particular person that we know does know the value, of a par- 
ticular master that we know does teach, of a particular man 
that we know is virtuous : here positive assertion or affirma' 
tion, of the facts of the being handsome, the knowing the va- 
lue, the teaching, and the being virtuous, is intended to be 
made. But in using the subjunctive, no particidar individuals 
are alluded to, at all : what is meaned here, with the subjunc- 
tive, is, some girl who is handsome, some person who knows the 
value, some master who teaches, any man who is virtuous ; 
without intending it to be understood, that we are alluding to 
individuals that we are acquainted with, and that we have it 
in our power to point out or particularize. Therefore, the 
Italians, when they do not speak of the person or thing, to 
which the relative relates as being such as could be pointed out 
or particularized, put the verb in the subjunctive, and make the 
distinction thus : 

I wish to marry a girl who is handsome : 
I wish to marry a girl who mmj be handsome. 



270 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



I.et u» Rive the monry to a person who knon t the vnluc of it : 

Let u« i^i»«' the money to n i)rrson who may knon the value of it. 

I icek a tna-tler who ttachts Itaiinn : 

J aeek a nin!>ter who may irach Italian. 

We oiik^ht to hon«iur the man wlio ?.« vir'nong : 

Me ouslit to honour llie ninn who mny be viituotis. 

In Strict accordance with the prioc.ij)le here laid down are the 
following examples: 



Gli o/imini lidiino tneno risp6'to ad 
oll'cndcrt uno che si fiiccia amdre, 
che uno che si ficcia tem^re. 

Mac.V. 

Ad un principe che vojlin fare pran 
c«se, c necessario impai die a ingan- 
ndre. Mac. P. 

Un potente, che con le arrae sue ti 
ventfa adajulare edifcndere, &r. 

Mac. D. 

Avendo ad eleRCtere nn principe, non 
andavano dictro al piil gagliirdo, 
ma a quello che fosse piCl prud^iite 
e pill giusto. Mac. D. 

Un principe adiinqae che dbhia una 
citta forte, e non si fuccia odidre, 
non pub, &c. Mac. P. 

Un principe, il qoa!e non sia sdvio 
per se stesso, non pub esser con- 
siglidto bene. Mac. P. 

E i solddii amdvano il principe d' ani- 
ino militarc, e cbe yc>sse insole.jte, 
crudele, e rapace. 

Mac. p. 



Mrn have less hesitation to ofTend 
one who »;iflfcfj8 hiin«elf loved, than 
one w ho makri biniK-lf feared. 



To a prince who nishes to do great 
things, it is necessary to learn to 
deceive. 

A powerful man, who comet with bis 
arms to assist and defend the0< 



Having to choose a prince, they dtd 
not go after the most brave, but that 
one who nas more prudent and 
more just. 

A prince, therefore, who has a pow-er- 
^ ful city, and dots not make hisa^lf 
hated, cannot . . . 

A prince who is not wise of himself^ 
cannot be well advised. 



And the soldiers liked the prince of 
military disposition, and wlio nas 
bold, cruel, and lapacious. 



The verbs /(ire, voIerCy venire, and cssere^ are, as we see, all 
here put in the subjunctive ; and this is because Macciiia- 
VELLi was not alluding to some onCy some prince, some 
•powerful man, in particular, but, to some or any one, some or 
SLny prince, some or any powerful 7na?i, that might happen 
to be in the cases the writer was supposing. 

198. There are a few more instances in which the subjunc- 
tive is used that I think it proper to notice. The pronoun 
quale, when used in the sense of our ivhat, very frequently 
governs the subjunctive. When used interrogatively, it may 



XX.] OF VERBS. 271 

govern either the indicative or the subjunctive, according to 
circumstances. . • 

Qual padre niai altretlanto si vide i What father did one ever see do so 
fare per suo figlio ? Soa. N. | much for his son ? ^ 

Here it requires the indicative. But if the use of quale, as an 
interrogative, be attributed to another person than the one wlio 
is speaking, or, if the question do not turn entirely on the 
word quale itself, as it does in the above example, but on some 
other word in the sentence, then the subjunctive must be used ; 
as: 

Ella chi^segli qual cagi6ne cola 11 i She asked him ivhat cause brovght 
guidasse. Soa. N. [ Lim thither. 



Chi dir potrebbe qualfSsse la desola- 
2i6ne e il rammdrico della miSera 
gidvane? Soa. N. 



Who can say what nas the ruin and 
the grief of the wretched young 
woman ? 



Here, the question, in the first example, is attributed to another 
person than the writer himself, that is, to ella, she ; and, in the 
second example, the question falls on the interrogative pronoun 
cJii, and not on quale. If quale be used in speaking of some- 
thing as to which our knowledge may be supposed to be quite 
certain, then the verb coming after should be in the indicative ; 
but, if the certainty of knowledge be not clearly understood, 
and if the thing we are speaking of be in any degree question- 
able , then we must use the subjunctive ; as : 



Con rjital orgoglio il crudele, e con 
qnal barbaric m' ha discaccidto I 

Soa. N. 

Incomincio a pensir qual mezzo tro- 
var potesse a procacciarsi nuovo 
danaro. Soa. N. 



With nhat haughtiness, and with vhat 
barbarity, the cruel one has driven 
me away I 

He began to consider ji-Aaf means he 
could find to procure himself fresh 
money. 



Here the haughtiness and the barbarity, in the first example, 
are spoken of as being certainly knovvn by the person who 
speaks ; and, therefore, the verb is in the indicative : while, in 
the second example, there is the he began to consider, and, as 
this exprescion infers uncertainty/ as to the means, the verb is, 
consequently, in the subjunctive. We must observe, however, 
that it is not always easy to give a reason for the use of 



272 



SYNTAX 



[Cliap. 



the suhjunclive, in place of the indicative, after ^wa/e. For 
example: 



Qi:al friittn ri (ia,vrnuto dalle 1iin;;he 
Do.stre diss^nzione, voi il vedctf . 

SoA. N. 

Niiino (tn mPKlio di vostra m.iesti 
f/iial sia lu natuia lii niovimcnti ri- 
Tili. Bi:n. L. 



Yon see nhat benefit is derived to as 
from our lon^ dissensions. 

No one knows bettor tlian yonr ma- 
jesty nhdl ii tli8 nature of civil 
commotions. 



Here the subjunctive is employed ; and }-et there appears to 
be no uncertainty, cither expressed or understood, as to what 
the heyiefit and the nature may be. Quale may require the 
subjunctive also, when used in the sense of iv hie h ; as : 

Voglio sapcre ^Mo/e ita la vostra [ I wish to know which it your 
casa, t bouse. 

Here there is doubt or uncertainty to be understood. But, if 
•ertainty of knowledge be expressed, or, if quale be used 
interrogatively, the verb should be in the indicative ; as : 



lo so qualt i. la Tostra casa, 
Quale c la vostra casa ? 



I I know nhich it your house. 
I Which is your house ? 



199. The word quanta, how, how much, when used as an 
adverb, meaning to what a degree, almost always governs the 
subjunctive ; as : 



Chi non sa quanta appartenga alia 
dignitJ rostra il ricuperdilo : qv.an- 
tn sia piel6so il liberdre que' po- 
poli ? Gui.S. 

La rea cosci6nza ben lo convinceva 
quanlo egliait'ise meritito lamorte. 

SoA. N. 



Who does not know how much the re>- 
gaining of it I'tbe kingdom) becomes 
your dignity : horv praiseworthy is 
the liberating of those people ? 

His wicked conscience convinced him 
well hotv much he had deserved 
death. 



fiii'ino sa moglio di vostra maestd 1 No ore knows better than your ma- 
quanlo sian peruizi6si. Ben. JU. I jesty horv pernicious thty are. 

Giudicher^ facilmeote quanta io mi [ You will easily judge how much I ^ 
cia raliegrato. Ben. L. [ have rejoiced. 

200. When the demonstrative pronoun quello is used with a 
relative pronoun coming after it, the verb must sometimes be in 
the subjunctive. If we intend distinctly to point out some cer- 
tain individual person or thing, then the indicative is used; as: 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



273 



lo non conosco quel u6mo di cui 
m' av6te pailato, 

lo ho iuteso quel che egU djsse, 



I do not know that man of whom 
you have spoken to me. 

1 have beard what he said. 



But, if we use the demonstrative, not intending, at the same 
time, that the relative should have reference to any particular 
individual, then we must use the subjunctive ; as : 



Chi d qitfllo, che non sappia quanto 
sia inferiore d' autorita il re di 
IS'apoli? Gui.S. 

Dando loro lic^nza di fare quello che 
piii/dsse a grado a ciascuno. 

Boc. D. 



Who is Ae who knows notliow much 
the king of Naples is inferior ia 
authoi'ity ? 

Giving them leave to do what nas 
most agreeable to each. 



201. The pronoun chi, which, as I have shown in Para' 
graph 255, is sometimes an indeterminate pronoun, does, 
sometimes, govern the subjunctive. It is frequently used in the 
sense of cohii che, he who, or that person who, comprising in. 
itself the sense of both colui and che ; and, in that case, it go- 
verns the indicative ; as : 



Chi va fuor del sno pa^se a verier il 
mondo,&c. Ben. L. 

. chi bene impcra 



Si rende venerabile ai soggetti. 

Tas. G. L. I 

Chi schifa quello che ciascun altro 
appetisce, mostra &c. D. Cas. G. 



He who goes oat of his country to see 
the world. 

He who governs well renders himself 
venerable to his subjects. 

He who despises that which every 
other one des>jes, shows . . . 



But, if chi be employed, as it frequently is, in the sense of anjf 
one who, or whosoever, then it governs the subjunctive ; asi 



Se don Ivan gli antichi una corona 
A chi suhusse a un cittadin la vita, &c. 

Ari. O. F. 

tsh sara Id Italia chi vi si opponga, 

Gui. S. 



If the ancients gave a crown to whom- 
soever saved the life of a citizen. 



Nor will there be any one in Italy u7io 
will o/^/>ose himsejf to it. 



202. Our pronouns whoever or whosoever, whatever or 
whatsoever, whichever or whichsoever, and the adverb how- 
ever, have, generally, the verb that follows them in the sub- 
junctive ; and the Italian words which correspond to them do, 
also, require the subjunctive : as, 



Chiimque sia 11 vostro amico, 



I Whoever your friend may be, 

N 5 



274 



SYNTAX 



[Chap, 



¥atb qoAlunque cosa mi coman- 
diale, 

Qualclie fiste la cngi/me della 
saa partita, 

Che clic 1' dbhia dctto, 

Per quanto noi/ffsimorirchi, 

Cotuunque Toi V albiute fatto, 



I will do tthatcTCT you m»ijcom- 

ntaiid inc. 

WSiotever might be the caasc of 
bis departare. 

Whoever may hate said it. 

However rich we might be. 

However yon may have done iL 



203. There is a sort of exclamations, expressive of strong 
desire or wish ; such as, Oh, that I were as happy as he ! 
Would to heaven that he were alive ! and such-like. The 
Italians, in using such exclamations as these, always employ the 
subjunctive; but they do not make use of the interjectiony in 
this case, so frequently as we do ; generally, the interjection is 
not used ; and, in many cases, the che is omitted, though, in 
the same case, we should use our that. Examples : 



Cos! raorto/(is»' io com' 6 ben vero ! 

GuA. P. F. 

Conlei/oss' io da cbe si parte il sole 1 

1»ET. C. 

Dio vvgtia che siaquello che io credo ! 

Mac. C. 



I 



qni/i4«erteco insieme 



TuUilituoi,ch'ione spegnesse ilsenie I 

Abi.O.F. 



Oh, that I were as dead as it is really 
true ! 

Oh. that I ntre with hrr from the 
time that the sun departs! 

Would to God that it may he what I 
believe ! 

Oh, that all thy kin nere here together 
with thee, that I might extiognish 
the race ! 



204. Having given something like an explanation of the dif- 
ference between the two languages, inasmuch as relates to the 
Indicative and Subjunctive modes compared with one ano- 
ther, I shall now proceed to the Conditional mode. I have 
thought it necessary, as I before observed, to consider this as a 
separate mode, and not as a part of the subjunctive. As to the 
name ** conditional" it does not signify how far it be or be not 
descriptive of the nature of this mode. It was necessary to 
employ some name to distinguish it; and I have given it that 
name by which it generally goes with grammarians. In consi- 
dering this mode, Ave must again speak of the subjunctive, and, 
indeed, of the indicative also. Let it be observed, that, when 
the mode called the coJiditional is used, there must always be 
understood the sense of one or the other of our words should 



XX.] OF VERBS. 275 

and would. The subjunctive mode expresses the sense of our 
words 7nay and might ; but, it also expresses the sense of our 
should, as well as the conditional mode ; and then the sub- 
junctive, in Italian, expresses, also, the sense of the word were, 
which we, in English, constantly use in our subjunctive. In 
speaking of the subjunctive mode hitherto, I have avoided 
the giving of examples wherein our words should and were 
are used as sign's of the subjunctive. We shall now see how 
the meaning of these signs of ours is to be expressed in Italian, 
But, first of all, I must speak of the conjunction se, if. This 
little word is of great importance : in using it, we must some- 
times put the verb in the indicative, and sometimes in the 
subjunctive. 

20-5. When we use our word if, and we mean to state a 
factj or to leave it to be understood, positive I i/,.2ind without any 
sort of condition or dependence, then we always put the verb 
in the indicative ; and so do the Italians. For example : 



J/he Tvas rich, he was not happy, 
Ifl had books, they were not mine, 



Se egli era ricco, uon era felice. 
Se io aveca. libri, non erano miei. 



Here I mean it to be understood, positively, that he was rich, 
that I did have books : the if here means, taking if for granted 
that he was rich, taking it for granted that I had books ; or, 
admitting that he was rich, &c. Macciiiavelli, in de- 
scribing the appeal made by the people of Lucca to the Duke, 
says that they added tears to their words, 

Acciocchd, se l'6bbligo non lo muo- I In order that if his duty moved 
I'ei^fl, lo rauov^sse la corapassione. I him not, compassion might more 

S. 1 him. 

It is meaned to be understood, here, for certain, and as an 
admitted fact, that the Duke's duty did not move him. 
Again : 



^o' 



Perch^, se Roma non sortl la prima 
fortuna, sorti la seconda ; perche, 
i primi Ordini se furnno diffettivi, 
nondimeno non diviarono, &e. 

Mac. D. 



Because, if Rome obtai}icd not the 
highest fortune, she obtained the 
next to it J because, if the higher 
order mere faulty, they deviated 
not . . . 



E se i tumulti/iiroMO cagi6ne della . And ?/ the tumults were the cause 
creazione de' Tribitni, meritano | of the creation of the Tribunes 

somma laiide. M.\c. D. | they merit the highest praise. 



276 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Here the verbs express facts, which are understood as ad' 
mittcd: it is taken for granted that Rome did not obtain 
tlic highest fortune, that the higlier orders were fault]/, that 
the tumults were the cause of what is staled. And we see 
that the two languages are here precisely alike, both requiring 
the indicative. 

206. But, if we use the if in the following manner: if he 
should be rich, if he were to be rich, or if he were rich, he 
would not be happy; if I should have books, if I were to have 
books, or if I had books, I would give them to you : in such 
cases the if, in the Italian, always requires the subjunctive. 



// he should be rich, he tvovld not be 



Se cgli /osse licco, non tare 



{ij he should be ncD, he tvouia noi oe 
happy. 
If he nere to be rich, he would not be 
happy. 
If he nere rich, he would not be 



happy. 
If i should have books, I would give 



Se io av^si libri, li darci « \ 



{II 1 snouia nmve oooks, i wouia give 
th«m to yoa. 
If I were to have books, I would givt 
them to you. 
If I had books, 1 would give them to 
you. 



Here the beiyig rick, and the haviyig books, are not at all 
either stated, or left to be understood, as certai?i: they are 
not facts admitted, but only supposed. In the same way we 
see the subjunctive, with the se, in these examples: 



Seloro si ritirdssero, come avrimmo 
a segairli ? 

Mac. p. 

Se i nemici fossero in sn quel colle, 
e noi ci troidssitno qui col nostra 
cs6rcito, chi di noi avribbe van- 
taifgio ? Mac. P. 

Ma se tu sapcssi ogni cosa, to non le 
ne maracigliaristi. Mac. C. 

Se qi;estn luc'go aivsse fontane, sa- 
rcbbe forse il piCl deli2iuso di 
Trancia. Ben. L. 

Se :o acissi cosi bella cotta come eV.a, 
sarii alliesi sguarddta come ella. 

^'oT. Ant. 



7/ they were to withdraw thfmselves, 
how should we hare to follorv 
them? 

If our enemies were on that hill, and 
we were tojind ourselves here with 
our army, which of as would have 
the advantage ? 

But if tbon wtrt to know erery thing, 
thou wouldest not be aistonished at it. 

If this place had fountains, it would 
be perhaps the most delightful one 
in France. 

1/ 1 had as fine a gown as she, I 
should be as much staied at as 
she. 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



277 



E se jjli u6mini fossero tutti bii6ni, 
queslo precttto non sarcbbe bu6no. 

Mac. p. 

Che varr6bbe al Leone 

La sua ferocitd, se uoq Vusdsse? 

GuA. p. p. 

Se io av6ssi questi deniri, io gli ti 
presterci incoatau4nte. Boc. D. 



And t/nien were all good, thii precept 
would not be good. 

What would his fierceness afatZ the 
lion, if he were not to use it ? 



7/ I had these monies, I would lend 
them to thee immediately. 



In these examples, we see riiirdssero, fossero, trovdssimo, 
Sapessi, avesse, avessi, fossero, usdsse, avessi: all these are 
in the subjunctive, coming after se, and depending on the 
other verbs avremmo, avrtbbe, mar av ig liar esti, sarcbbe, 
sarei, sarebbe, varebbe, presterci. All the latter verbs, au- 
reriuno, avrcbbe, &c. are in the Conditional. And here we 
see the reason for giving this mode the name of Conditional ; 
because, the if, in such cases, means very neatly the same as 
upon condition that, or in case, or supposing that: 



A condizione che, nel caso che, or 
posto che egli fosse ricco, non 
sarcbbe felice, 

A condiziSne <■/»€, nel caso che, or 
posio che io avissi libri, li darei a 
vol, 

A co7idizione che, nel caso che, or 
posto che gli u6inini fdssero tutti 
bnoni, questo precetto non sarcbbe 
buono, 



Upon condition that, in case, or sup- 
posing that he were rich, he would 
not be happy. 

Upon condition that, in case, or sup- 
posing that I were to have books, 
I would give them to you. 

Upon condition that, in case, or sup- 
posing that all men were Jjood, 
this precept would not be good. 



So, with the other examples just given : i7i case, or supposing 
that, they ivere to withdraw themselves ; in case, or suppos- 
ing that, our enemies were on that hill ; in case, or supposing 
that, thou wert io know ; in case, or supposing that, this 
place had fountains ; in case, or supposing that, 1 had as line 
a gown ; in case, or supposing that, he were not to use it ; in 
case, or supposifig that, I had these monies. 

207. ZoTTi, in his edition of Veneroni's Grammar, gives 
the following rule. *' Observe," he says, *' that though the 
** phrase may include the Conditional, if we be speaking of a 
*' time past, we must in Italian, use the imperfect of the 
" indicative (that is to say, the past imperfect time of the 
" indicative) after the condition if. Examples : Zr'AVRir 



278 SYNTAX [Chap. 

*' fatto BZ tu wie/ ciiiEDKVi : /cri se stavo bene, sarki 
** andato fndriy That is, to translate these examples literally : 
I should have done it, if thou askcdst me ; yesterday, if I 
iveis well, I should have gone out. And then Zotti gives us 
this example from Maffei : E talc ancor vivui^i, se tu non 
KRI, and thus I should yet live^ if thou wast not. Here are 
the phrases, se tu mel ciiied^vi, be stavo, se tu non ert, 
with the verbs in the indicative : instead of, se tic mcl Axissi 
ciiiESTO, se fossi stato, se tit 710)1 FOssi, the verbs in the 
subjunctive. In accordance with these examples of Zotti 
are the followins: : 



o 



E se giumicva il fcrro 

La 'vc la mano il dcstino, Nicandro 

Oggi yivo non/ora. Gua. P. F. 

Se egli s'fi^roniuva vii5orosain6nte, 
avribbe rotta quella parte della 
ca\alleria. Dav. S. 



And if the dajjger had reached where 
the hand aimed il, Nicandro would 
not be alive to-day. 

//he had put h\mse\( forward vigor- 
ously, he nould have routed that 
part of the cavalry. 



Here we see the Conditionals, loouldbe, luould have routed ; yet 
the verbs following the se are in the indicative, according to the 
rule of Zotti: se giung^va ilferro, sf. egli s'affrontava ; 
which, literally translated, are, if the dagger reached, if he 
ful himself forward. Now, all this, we must observe, is, in 
prijiciple, bad grammar. True it is, as we see by the quota- 
tion made by Zotti, and by these examples that I have just 
given, that the verb thus coming after se is sometimes employed 
in the indicative. But this is only a liberty which is taken in 
practice ; and Zotti's rule, which tells us we are here to use 
the indicative, is not only not correct, but the examples he 
gives to illustrate his rule are, strictly speaking, nothing more 
than instances of violation of principle. In all such cases 
the Subjunctive should be used^ and not the Indicative, to 
be strictly correct. Zotti would have been right in telling 
us that, to a certain extent, practice countenances the using 
of the indicative here, instead of the subjunctive. But his 
absolute rule is worse than good for nothing : he makes that 
the rule which he should have made the exception : what he 
lays down as the rule, is not what is required in grammar, 
but only what is tolerated in practice. In the above examples, 



XX.] OF VERBS. 279 

therefore, it should have been: se fosse givsto ilferro, se 
cgli si fosse aftrontato. Peretti givCvS us this example : 
se foste venuto meco, avreste veduto il re; if yon 
had come with me, you would have seen the king. Accord- 
ing to ZoTTi, this should have been, se venivate meco, 
avreste veduto il re, if yon came with me, you would 
have seen the king; for, the coming is decidedly spoken of 
here as belonging to a time past, Zotti's quotation, we 
may observe, does not accord with his rule about time : E 
tale ancor vivrki, se ^tu non eri, and thus I should yet 
live if thou wast not. It ought not to be eri in Italian, any 
more than it ought to be luast in English. What is meaned 
is, " and thus, I should yet live if thou wert not," that is, ^' if 
it were not for thy being :'' and here the being is not meaned 
to be spoken of as in any particular time, at all. 



Sc cosi non fosse, io non vi p«trei 
presta>-e un grosso. Boc. D. 

• il cammino, 



^5 

Che libero saria se non fosse ella. 

Am. O. F. 



// it were not thus, I should not be 

able to lend you a farthing. 

The road, which 7vould be free if she 
were not. 



That is to say, if it were not to be thus, or, in case it ivere 
not thus ; if she ivere not to be, or, if it were not for her 
being. Macihavelli, speaking of ambition and avarice, 
says, ' 



se non fSsser quelle, 



Sarcbbt assai felice il nostro state, 

R. 



//"those were not, our condition would 
be happy enough. 



That is, if those ivere not to be, or, if it were not for their 
being. In these three examples the verbs fosse, fosse, Josser, 
have clearly no reference to any particular time. The same 
may be said of the eri in the example given by Zotti ; there,, 
instead of eri, it should have been fossi, according to the 
three examples I have just given, in which the subjunctive is 
rightly used. But, let us take an example or two, in which 
we can discover that the verb distinctly refers to something 
in a time past. 

Se voi m' avcssi parlato a Parigi io | If you had spoken to me at Paria I 
saprci che consilgiarvi. Mac. C. I should know what to advise you. 



280 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



MoiM e R<'iiniilo non acrihhero poi- 
ii'ilo fare ORMTVaie liiit^nmcnte le 
Inro ronslituz'!6iii, tr JOitrrn tiali 
disanujti. Ma c. I'. 

Sar^be riu$e(ta riropr^jsa molto 
lunga e niolto trnvni{li<jsa, se la 
DPglig6nza dc' difi:n86ri non Vavt's^e 
resa mollo facile &c. Dav. S. 

Se i Fiortntini aiiasino notdto questo 
testo, non acrcbbero aiulo con i 
Franc^'ai, ni^ tanti danni, nd tantc 
nnje. Mac.D. 

O quanto mi sarcste piii earn, se data 
non mi ti oit'sse il padr6ne I Ma 
se a me dalo non Vavcase ii padrone, 
non mi sarcbbe si caro. 

GoL. C. 



Moaeii and Romulos nould not kavt 
bten able to cause their constitu- 
tions to be observed, {f they knd 
been disarmed. 

The undertaking would hate becotnt 
very long and tedious, if the negli- 
gence of the defenders had not ren- 
defed it very easy. 

1/ the Florentines had ohsrrrfd this 
text, tlicy nould not have had with 
the French either so many losses or 
80 many troubles. 

O how much more dear thon nouldett 
be to me if my master had not picen 
thee to me I But «y my master had 
not yiven it to me, it would not be 
so dear to me. 



In these five e.xamples the speaking, being, becoming, ob- 
serving, and giving , are evidently spoken of with reference to 
& past time; nevertheless, the verbs expressing these circum- 
stances are all in the subjunctive, contrary to the rule given 
by ZoTTi. The using of the subjunctive, and not of the in- 
dicative, here, is what strict grammar requires. If we meet 
with the use of the indicative in instances similar to the 
examples that Zotti gives in support of his rule, we must 
consider such use merely as a licence^ which, to whatever ex- 
tent it may be allowed in practice, is not consistent with prin- 
ciple. Not only is the indicative used, according to this license, 
in place of the subjunctive, but we sometimes see it used in- 
stead of the conditional. _ For example : 



II traditcre era pert/ii^o, se i ravfllicri 
riusciti non fdssero a salvarlo. 

SoA. N. 

Sceser due altti, e ne seendia un drap- 

[pello 
Se i primi scesi VacCsser conccssn. 

Ari O. F. 

S'avi'ssc dalo all' 6pra gentile 
Con la figiira voce ed intelletto, 
Di 808 ^)ir raolti mi syombrdta il petto. 

Put. S. 



The traitor nould have been lost, if 
the gentlemen had not succeeded in 
saving him. 

Two others descended, and a baud of 
them would have descended if the 
two first descended had allowed it 



jyiie had yivrn to the beautiful work 
voice as well as figure, and intellect, 
he would have freed my breast of 
many sighs. 



Here we see, eraperduto, was lost, scendea, descended, sgom- 
brdca, freed ; instead of, sarcbbe state perduto, would have 



XX.l 



OF VERBS. 



281 



been lost, sarchhero sctsi, would have descended, avrcbhe 
sgombi'iUo, would have freed. Yet heie, again, in opposition 
to the rule of Zotti before mentioned, we see the subjunctive 
used after se in the verbs riuscire, conccdere, and ddre. 

Sometimes the indicative is employed, at one and the same 
place, for both subjunctive and conditional : 



Mulo restdva, mi cied'io, se quella 
Nod gli rtnd6a Ja voce e la favella. 

Ari. O.F. 

iS'era piu tardo, o poco piil lontano, 
Jfon giiingca a tempo, e con factva 

[efietto. 
Ari. O. F. 

Non poteva Teseo dimostrdre la sua 
viitii, se noQ irovdva gli Ateni6si 
dispersi. Mac. P. 



He would have remained dumb, I 
believe, if she had not restored to 
him his voice and language. 

If he had been later, or a little farther 
off, he would not have arrived in 
time, and would not have produced 
effect. 

Theseus would not have been able to 
show his virtue, if he had not/ouiid 
the Athenians disperoec". 



Here we see, rendea, restored, era, was, trovdva, found; 
these indicatives are used instead of the subjunctives avesse 
rendufo, had rendered, Josse stdfo, had been, avesse trovdfOf 
had found: then we see, restdva ^ lemdiined, giungea, arrived, 
jfaceva, produced, poteva, was able ; these indicatives are used 
instead of the conditionals sarebbe restdto, would have re- 
mained, sarebbe giunto, would have arrived, avrtbbe faitOy 
would have produced, avrebbe poticto, would have been able. 

208. Having explained the different manners of using the 
verb with the conjunction se, I must now take some particular 
notice of our signs of the modes, would, should, were, might, 
and may. There is, sometimes, but a small shade of differ- 
ence, as to meaning, between the use of one of these signs and 
the use of another; and, in some cases, we may use either the 
one or the other of two of them to convey a single idea. It is 
difficult to make any thing like rules to show people how the 
various senses of these signs are to be conveyed in using the 
Italian verbs, which have no such signs belonging to them. I 
will, however, by the means of a few examples, endeavour to 
make this matter tolerably well understood. We must, first of 
all, take notice that, though, very frequently, there is something 
of the uatare of a condition, expressed by the words se, if, a 
condizione che, upon condition that, nel case che, in cdt.se, posto 



28-2 SYNTAX' [Chap. 

che supposing, or some such conjunction, in those cases wherein 
the mode called conditional is employed ; yet, this mode may 
be used without there being any sort of condition either ex- 
pressed or understood. We have already seen examples suffi- 
cient of the condition expressed, and, therefore, I need give no 
more such as respects this mode, any further than to show when 
we are to en)ploy should, and when would, as signs of the con- 
ditional. 

^ If I had book*, I mould give them to 

I yon; 

Se Id av6s«l libri, li darii a Toi, c or, 

I in had hooks, I sAoiWd give them to 

^ you. 

Then, again : 

Se egli fosse ricco, non sarlbbe felice, | If he were rich, be n-ouW not be happy. 

Here we have the conditions expressed : se to avcssi, se egli 
fosse. And here we see, that, when our should and would 
may be either of them employed in one and the same instance, 
as expressing an inclination or disposition of the mind, on 
some condition, the conditional mode, in Italian, expresses the 
sense of both should and would; and, also, that when our 
would is used, as expressing pro6a6i/«72/ or likelihood, on some 
condition, then, also, the Italian conditional is used. Again, 
if we use our should, intending to affirm the probability 
merely, and not the inclination • then the conditional is used : 
as, 

ISe io fossi ricco, non sarci felice, | If I were rich, I should not be bnppy. 

But the conditional has, besides that use of it which its name 
describes, another use. This mode expresses a sort of future 
time as to a past time. For example : 

Jeri io mandai a dirgli che io v' an- i Yesterday I sent to tell liim that 

drii stamattina, I I should (or nould) come this 

\ 1 morning. 



CI disse stascra che verebbe do- 
mani, 



He told us this eTening that h« 
should (or nould) come to- 
morrow. 



That is: that it %vas my intention, at the time I sent to tell 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



283 



him, to go there at a time Jut tire (namely, this morning) • that 
it luas his intention, at the time he told us, to come at a time 
future (namely, to-morrow). We express this intentional idea 
by either of our signs should and would, as in the examples 
just given ; and, in such cases as this, the Italian conditional 
expresses the sense of the should or would. 

209. So much for the conditional, and the meaning of our 
words should and would as expressed by that mode. The 
word should may, as I have before said, be expressed by the 
subjunctive ', and it is generally expressed in that mode in 
cases where it is used by us in the sense ol might, or in such 
cases as those in which we may use the word were in its place. 
As: 



Gli facevano prima giurSie che non 
ridirebbero cosa che vedcssino o 
sentissino. 

Mac. D. 

Vollero stabilireakune leggi, le quali 
/6ssero perpetae in ciasciia tempo. 

Dav. S. 

6e loro si ritirassero, come avr6mmo 
a fare ? 

Mac. p. 

Diede oidine che il i€of6sse immaa- 
tineiite anestato. 

SoA. N. 



They made them first swear that they 
would not repeat any thing that they 
should see or should hear {oimight 
see or might hear). 

They desired to establish some laws, 
which should be (or might he) per- 
petual and immutable at all times. 

If they should (or were to) withdram 
themselves, how should we have to 
act? 

He gave orders that the criminal 
should (or might) be immediately 
arrested. 



But it is, after all, as I before said, extremely difficult to give 
rules about this matter. In the conjugations of verbs, I have 
put should only as the sign expressed by the conditional mode, 
because there was not room to put would also, yet the condi- 
tional does, as we have seen, express both our should and 
would. Then, I hav^e, in the conjugations, put might only as 
the sign of the subjunctive mode in the past time ; though the 
subjunctive^ in Italian, may, as we have just seen, express our 
signs should and were, as well as our might. As a sigh of the 
subjunctive mode, in the present time, I have put the word may 
throughout the conjugations ; yet. the present time of the sub- 
junctive is not merely capable of representing the sense of this 
sign. For example : 



284 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



]o prr^o Dio che vi ilia lungae 1>n6na 
vita. Sai:. N. 

Comaniln die la sun nio^lic innnrcnte 
sia ticcisa. Bof. D. 

V^jtlio che ella mi mandi ana cioe- 
cb^tta delia barba di Nicostr.itn. 

Boi . I). 

E non «• racion^vole che chi ^ arm jto 
obbfdisca volcntieri n clii 6 disar- 
mato. Mat. P. 

Come se il richieilere clie nltri ubbi- 
disca il tuo r<>nsii;lio pon c mni,'- 
gi6re arroginzn, &c. D. Cas. 



I prny Ool to pice yon a lonij and 

i;ood li[c. 

He commands that his innocent wife 
niai/ he killed. 

] wi>h that tlie may srnd me ^-ould 
send me, should send me, m, I wish 
her to send me) a litlle tuft of the 
bifird of Nicostrato. 

And it is not reasonable that he who 
is armed should volnniarily obey 
him who is unarmed. 

As if the rrrpiirinc: that another «Aou/d 
J'nlluiv thy advice is j;ot greater ar- 
rogance .... 



Here the Italian verbs are all in the present time of the sub- 
junctive mode ; but they do not merely express the sense of our 
verb, as used with the sign may : we see dia representing our 
infinitive mode to give ; sia representing our 7)iay be; mandi 
representing all the different turns of may send, luould send, 
should send, and to send ; and, lastly, obbedisca and ubbi- 
disca, representing our should obey, should follow. These 
examples may be of some use to the learner ; but nothing, with- 
out a good deal of practice, can teach this matter thoroughly. 
There are still some other words that we make use of as sig7i9 
of the different modes ; but the may, might, should, would, 
and were, are those which peculiarly belong to the subjunctive 
and conditional modes, and I have, therefore, spoken of them 
in this place. Of the other words that are tnade use of as signs, 
I shall presently have to say something; but, first, there is one 
mode remaining for our consideration; namely, the Impera- 
tive. 

210. Very little need be said respecting this mode. To de- 
fine the nature of it would hardly be necessary. It is called 
imperative, because there is, in the using of this mode, always 
something of a command expressed. One main difference be- 
tween the two languages here is, that which is occasioned by the 
use of our word let. 



ama, 

ami, 

amiamo, 

atniile, 

amino. 



love, or, love thou. 
let him, or her, love. 
let as love, or, love we. 
love, or, love you. 
let them love. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 285 

Here we see that the Italians may express the sense of our word 
let, in this case, without using any other word in addition to 
the verb itself; and, also, that they are not obliged to use the 
pi'onouns, in this mode, any more than in any other mode of 
the verb. They may, however, if they choose, use the pronoun, 
and say. 



ama tu, 

ami egli, or, ella, 

Mtnidmo noi, 

amute voi, 

amino cylino, or CUetio, 



love thou, 
love be, or, she. 
love we. 
love you, 
love they. 



In English, it is not customary to use the imperative in the 
third persons singular and plural, without, at the same time, 
employing the let as a sign of the mode : thus, while the 
Italians may say, ami egli, or elia, dmino eg lino, or clhnCj 
that is, love he, or she, Jove they- we should prefer saying 
let hiniy or her love, let them love. For example: 



Deh, ognidisc6idia sia oggimii termi- 
Katafranoi. Soa. N. 

Beva il sidro d' Inghiltena 
Chi vnol gir presto sotterra. 

Red. B. T. 



Come, let every strife between us he 
now ended. 

Let him who wishes to be quickly 
under ground drink English cider. 



C^rfaMo tattiglialtri paesiallaFrancia. I Let&W other countries cede to France. 

Ben. L. 1 

That is, literally translated : come, be every strife between us 
ended ; drink English cider he who wishes, &:c. ; cede all other 
countries to France. It is, however, very often a matter of 
option with us, to use the sign let or to omit it. All I have 
to point out here is, that such sign is not at all used by 
the Italians. But, we must observe, that though they can 
express their imperative without the use of any thing like 
our sign let; yet, if we were to use our word let, which, as 
a verb of itself, signifies the same as to permit, er to allow ■ if 
we were to use this word in the way of asking 'permission, or 
desiring some to be allowed, in such cases, the Italians would 
use their verb lascidre, which means to leave, to allow, or to 
let. As: 

Ldsciatem'x parlare, [ Let, or allow, me to speak, 

Lascidtelo venire, | Let, or allow, him to come. 



286 SYNTAX [Chap. 

There rrmains one tiling more t«) be noticed as respects the im- 
perative mode ; and that is, the use of the infinitive in the 
sense of the imperative. When tl>e Italians speak impera- 
tively in the negative, that ig, to forbid the doing or being of a 
thing, they then use the infinitive mode with the negative non 
before it ; as : 

Lisciami ; non mi toec&re. Boc. T). | Leave me, touch me not, 

Ifon dubitur della fcde mia. Mac. C. | Doubt not of my fidelity. " 

8e til non ▼u6i cbe io Rudsti le cose | If thoo dost not wish that I shoald 
tue, non guasldr le mie. Sac. N. I mar thy afTairs, mar no( mine. 

JVon mi/ar adirare. Gol. C. | Do not moArf me get io a passioa. 

Non mi toccarf, ribaldo. Mac. C. ) Touch me not, r»g>»e. 

Ci6 non temcr. Alf. T. | Fear not that. 

The infinitive is to be used thus only when the person addressed 
is of the singular nn7nber, there being expressed or left to be 
understood the pronoun tUy thou: non AMARE,or, non amare 
TU, love not, or, love not thou. If there be expressed or under- 
stood the plural voiy you, we must not use the infinitive, but the 
imperative : non a mate, or, 7ion am ate voi, love not, or, love 
not you. SiGNOR Biagjoli says, that, when the infinitive is 
thus used instead of the imperative, there is an ellipsis. He 
says that such phrases as noti amare, 7ioJi par lure, &c., mean, 
tu non dei amdrey thou shouldst not love, tu non dei parlarey 
thou shouldst not speak. So, in the examples given above, the 
IdsciaTni, non mi toccare, non dubitar della fede mia, 
&c., these would mean, Idsciamiy non dei toccarmi, non 
DEI DUBITAR della fede mia; and so on with the rest. 

211. We have now gone through all the five modes, the m- 
Jinitivey the iJidicalive, the subjunctivey the conditional, and 
the imperative. I have already spoken of some of the words 
called signs of the modes ; namely, may, might, should, would, 
were, and let. But there remain yet some other words, that' 
are also called signs, to be considered ; besides some manners 
of using the verbs, which are peculiar to the Italian language, 
and the notice of which will come, properly, under the head of 
mode. The word let, as one of the signs, needs no further 
notice. But the r?iay, .night, should, would, and were, will 



XX.] OP VERBS. '287 

still require something more to be said about them ; and then 
there is, in addition to these, a manner we have of using the 
rerbs to do and to be; and, also, the signs shall, will, can, 
could, ought, and must. 

212. The verbs to do and to be are, we know, constantly 
employed in our language along with other verbs. The Italian^ 
have no such use of these verbs. For example : 

I speak; I do speaJc, oi I am X j^ ^^^j^^ 
speaking, J i 

I spoke, I did speak, or I was 1 j^ parldva. 
speaking, 3 

Thus, we see, that while we may either use the words speak 
and spoke alone, or those same words with do and did, or the 
active participle speaking with am and ivas ; we see, that 
while we have these various ways of expressing one idea, the 
Italians have but the one wa}'-, and that their parlo and par^ 
lava supply, at once, all our different modes of speak, do 
speak, am speaking, and spoke, did speak, was speaking. 
More examples need not be given to illustrate this matter. We 
have only to observe, that, throughout the whole of the verb, ia 
whatever mode or time it may be, the two languages differ in 
just the same manner as in the two examples here given. One 
thing more only need be said of these verbs to do and to be, as 
used in the above manner; that is, the use of the verb to be 
along with other verbs in the subjunctive mode. Our verb to 
be, in the past time of its subjunctive, has but two changes, 
were and wert. Of the were I have already spoken, as a 
sign of the subjunctive when used with other verbs. Wert, as 
applied to the second person singular, fulfils just the same 
office as were, when applied to other persons, both singular and 
plural. Let us take an example : 



If I were to speak, 
If thou wert to speak, 
If he litre to speak, 
If we n ere to speak. 
If you were to speak. 
If they mere to speak. 



Se io parlkssi. 
Se tu parlassi. 
Se egli parlasse. 
Se Boi parldssimo, 
Se \oi parldste. 
Se ^glino parldssero. 



The were or wert, then, is the sign, by which we constantly 
express the subjunctive mode of our verbs. We see, however, 



288 SYNTAX [Chap. 

that the Italians know notliing of such sign : it would be per- 
fect nonsense to say se io fossi parl^'^e, the literal transla- 
tion of OUT if I WERE TO SPEAK. We ficc that, from the 
want of a greater variety in the terminations of our verbs, we 
are here driven to tl.r use of a part of the verb io be as a sign 
of the subjunctive, wMlc the other verb, of which it expresses 
the subjunctive sense, is in the infinitive : ivere or wert, the 
subjunctive; ^o 5pea/r:, the infinitive. The Italian, on the con- 
trary, has a separate change in termination, as in the foregoing 
example, to express the subjunctive, and does not therefore re- 
quire, like our language, any siyn of mode beyond the termi'^ 
nation of the verb. If we use our verb in the compound of the 
subjunctive, we see that it is very irregular, compared with the 
Italian. For example : 



Se io avcssi cost bella cotta come 
ella, sarci altresi sjjaardaia come 
ella. Nov. Ant. 



If I had as fine a pown as slie, I 
should be as much stared at as 
she. 



In this example, which is one of those before cited under 
Paragraph 206, we, in English, might say, if I iij^a as fine a. 
gown, or, if I were to have as fine a gown. Again: 

Wa se tu sapcssi ogni cosa, tu non te i But if tliou didst know every thing, 
Be maravigliaresti. Mac. C. | tliou wouldst not be astonished. 

Here we might say, in English, but if thou didst know, or, 
but if thou WERT to know. In Italian, however, there is 
not this irregularity, and the subjunctive is, in that language, 
more strictly observed. According to the rule given by Zotti, 
as mentioned in Paragraph 207, we might say, in the former of 
these two examples, se io aveva cosi bella cotta, which would 
precisely correspond with our if T had as fine a goum ; and 
this would, strictly speaking, be bad Italian, though, as I be« 
fore observed, practice countenances such a mode of using the 
verb in some instances. 

213. Having disposed of the verb to do, as employed in the 
manner just described, of the verb to be, as respects the use of 
the were or wert, and of the verb to let, as a sign of the im- 
perative mode, we come to the will, shall, can, could, ought, 
and must • and here we must again speak of would dind should, 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



289 



may and might. The will and shall are the signs of the 
future time of the indicative mode. Throughout the conjuga- 
tions I have put shall only; because, as I have before said ia 
speaking of should and wouldy there was not room for the in- 
sertion of both. The would, should, may, and might, have 
already been pretty largely spoken of. The can, could, 
ought, and must, have not, as yet, forced themselves on our 
attention at all. But we must, now, take a review of all these 
together. 

214. There are three important verbs in the Italian language, 
which, between them, have the power of expressing the sense 
of all these signs. The verbs are, voUre, potcre, and dovere ; 
and they express the sense of the signs as follows : 



VOLEBE, 

To be willing 



> expresses the sense of 



will, 
shall, 
would, 
should. 



POTERE, 

To be able 



,} 



'■ "DOVEBE, -i 

To owe, J 



expresses the sense of 



expresses the sense of 



may, 
might, 
can, 
could. 

ought, 

should, 

must. 



We will take these three verbs, with those signs which are 
placed opposite to each, in the order in which they stand in the 
above table. 

215. The verb Volere means the same as our to will oi to 
be willing ; it means, also, to be inclined, to wish, or to de- 
sire. It is very often used, in the infinitive, as a noun, repre- 
senting our nouns will, inclination, or wish. The Italians say, 
fiecondo il vostro volere, which, literally translated, means, 
yOjccording to your to will, or according to your to be 
WILLING, meaning, according to your will or inclination. 
The sense intended to be conveyed by our signs will and shall 
is, we know, very different in some cases from what it is in 
others. This is a matter as to which all foreigners find great 
difficulty ia our language ; and though we have, in learning 





290 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Italian, the advantage of having to do with a language that 
has no such words as these signs to puzzle us ; nererthelese, 
some attention must be here paid, or we shall be liable to 
make flagrant mistakes. Our will and our shall are both ex- 
pressed, in Italian, by the manner of ending in the verb. For 
example: 



He says that he will come to-morrow, 
He says thathe shall come to-morrow, 

He says that he will not come to- 
morrow, 

Be says that he shall not come to- 
morrow. 






! 



Dice che verrd domiui. 



Dice che non verrA domini. 



The tvill and shall have not, we know, even in such instances 
as the above, precisely the same meaning. In a still greater 
degree do they differ in many instances of another description* 
Yet, we see, that the verb venire^ in the future time, answers, 
in its manner of ending, for both our will and shall as prefixed 
to the verb come : verra, will or shall come ; non verra, will 
not or shall not come. Now, to give something like a rule as to 
how the sense of this tvill and shall of ours is to be expressed 
in Italian, observe, that when these signs are intended merely 
to foretell or to intimate the coming to pass of something in 
a future time^ then the meaning they convey is expressed in 
Italian by the termination of the verb. But, if, when we use 
ivill or shall, we intend to express any willingness or wish, or 
any disposition or determination of the mind as to something 
in a future time ; in such case, the Italians must have recourse 
to soinethinix other than merelv the verb in its future time. 
For example : 



If you rc'xXl go, I mill go with you, 
I shall not go, nor shall you go, 



Se tolcle anddre, io andrb con roi. 
lo non andrb, nd voglio cheToi andidte. 



Every English person knows how much difference there is, in 
such cases, between the will and the shall, and between the 
one 2vill and the other will, the one shall and the other shall. 
Here the if you will go means if you are willing to go; 
the will, in this case, is clearly understood to express willing- 
ness or inclination : while, on the contrary, the / will go does 



XX.] OF VERBS. 291 

not, necessarily, convey the same idea, but may be intended 
merely to ybre/eZ/ or to intimate that the going is to take place. 
To express the first will, therefore,, the Italians would use their 
verb voltre: se volete anddre, that is, if you are willing to 
go; and, to express the second will, they would simply put the 
verb in the future time: io andro, that is, I will ^o, or, I 
shall go; for, here, whether we were to use will or shall, 
the meaning would be much the same, and either of the signs 
would be expressed by the same form of the verb, andro. In the 
second example, we see the shall used in a similar way. The 
first shall, Avith the not, does not, of necessity, express unwill- 
ingness to go, but may be understood merely to foretell or to 
intimate, i\\2ii\\iQ going is not to take place; but the second 
shall does, as we all know, necessarily imply that there is, in 
the person who speaks, some willingness or determination in 
the negative, as to the going of the person who is spoken to. 
Io NON ANDRO, that is, I shall not go, or I loilL not go ; for, 
here, again, as with the will in the other examples, the shall 
or the will may be used indifferently: ne voglio che voi 
AND I ATE, that is, nor am I williiig for you to go. We see, 
in the two examples just given, that, in one instance, the will 
or shall may be used indifferently : 

If you will go, I will (or shall) go with you. 
I shall (or will) not go, nor shall you go. 

Here the will or shall, and shall or zuill, may both be ex- 
pressed by the ending of the verb {andro) in Italian. It is very 
nearly, if not quite, a matter of choice to use the one sign or 
the other in such cases. Neither the one nor the other, as here 
employed, necessarily implies any ivillingness, inclination, 
or determination, about the going; and both may foretell, 
merely, that the going is to take place, or is not to take place. 
But, very different would it be, if we were to exchange the 
other will and shall for each other, and to say, 

If you shall go, I will go with you. 
I shall not go, nor will you go. 

This is enough, at once, to show the importance of rightly using 

o2 



292 SYNTAX [Chap. 

these signs of ours, and, also, what difficulty must arise to 
foreigners in learning this part of our language. Here the 
shall and willj that are put in italics, make the sense totally 
different from what it would he if each were in the place of the 
other. But, I may be told that, in the two examples I have 
given : if you will go, I will go with you; I shall not go, nor 
shall you go; I may be told, that the second will in the first, 
and the Jirst shall in the second, of these examples, may, both 
of them, be intended to convey the before-mentioned sense of 
willingness or detennination. And this is true enough; 
and, supposing the meaning to be such, then the Italian verb 
cannot express the will or shall by its termination in either 
case : 



If you nill go, I will go with you, 
I shall not go^ nor shall you go. 



Se rolcle anddre, io Voglio anddre 
coo voi. 

Io non voglio andure, ne viglio che 
voi andidte. 



Here, then, is the Italian volcre, to be willing, employed to 
convey the sense of both icills and both shalls ; that is, sup- 
posing the English to mean, expressing willingness in both 
cases in each example, if you are willing to go, I am willing 
io go ; I am not tvilling to go, nor am I willing for you to go. 
Let us take another example or two : 



{ Tt OH nill not coi 
i, ( cause you hav( 



Voi non vfrrite a visitarmi, perchd 

m'av^teoffeso, { Yoh n-t72 not come to visit ne, be- 

Voi non vnlete venire a visitarmi, \ cause you have ofieuded me. 

perch^ m' av6te (iffeso, 



The first of these two Italian modes merely foretells or inti?nates 
that your coming is not to take place, for the given reason, 
your having offended me; while the second not only foretells 
or intimates that you are not coming, but states that, for the 
reason given, you are unwilling, or not disposed, to come. 
We see, then, that while our will and shall are sufficient both 
to the mere foretelling of what is to come to pass, and to the 
expressing of our willingness as to what may come to pass, it 
is only as far as the foretelling goes, only as far as they ex- 
press likelihood or unlikelihood, and serve to promise an 
event either affirmatively or negatively, that the Italian verb 



XX.] OF VERBS. 293 

includes in itself, independently of any other verb, the force of 
these signs. 

216. Volcre represents our luould and should just in the 
same manner as it does our ivill and shall ; as : 

I have told you that I rvtmhl come, i Vi ho detto che io voleva venire. 

I have told you thai I should come, [ Vi ho detto che io verrci. 

Here the che io voleva venire means, that I 2uas willing to 
come, and the che io verrei, that T luas likely, or should be 
' likely to come. Sometimes the should, as expressed by voUre, 
has the sense of our ought or must ; as : 



The olive-tree should not be {ought j L' ulivo nnn viiol 
not to be, or JHMsf not be) cut, I 



esser laqrliato. 



That is, literally, the olive-tree luills not to be cut. Volere is 
a verb of great importance, as are, also, potere and dovcre. 
A good deal of practice, however, must be had, to make us 
acquainted with the various manners of using it. It is very 
commonly employed as governing the subjunctive mode, 
expressing some sort of willingness^ ivish, desire, consent, 
liking , ov permission ; as: ' ' 

I am ivillivg for you to speak, 

' I 7vish you to speak, 

I dfsjrc you to speak, , _ , , . ,. 

T , . , . > Io vogho che voi parliate. 

I cnyisent to your speaking, ( 

1 like you to speak, 

I permit you to speak, 

Not, however, that there are no other verbs that may be em- 
ployed to represent these of ours. There are hramure, to wish 
desiderdre, to desire, comandurc, to command, consent'ire 
or acconsentWe, to consent^ alnure, to like, permtttere, to 
permit. Yet, such is the importance of voUre. that it fre- 
quently fulfils the ollice of any one of these verbs, as in the 
examplejust given. When we use our verb to have with ivill 
or would, the Italians use volere alone ; as : 



I rvill haveyou to know, 
I will have it to be so. 
You would have it so, 

Observe, also, the following idioms 



Io voglio che sappiate. 
Io voglio che sia cosi. 
Cosi voi Io volevdte. 



294 SYNTAX [Chap. 



Id(Ho In tpglia, 
Iddio non votftia, 
Non na quel «i vnglia, 

V'j voglio bene, 
Che vuut (lir cid ? 
Clie volcte? 



God ^rant it. 

God forMd. 

He deed not kDOW hj« own mind, 

or, wliat he wants. 
1 lovp you, or, I \vi»h you well. 
What does that in«nn ? 
What do you want ? 



217. The verb poriiiE is, in all respects, a perfect verb, 
capable of being conjugated from beginning to end, like any 
other verb. It expresses our to be able, a sort of verb, com- 
pounded of the adjective able and the verb to be, and also, 
our can and could, as well as may and might, when the two 
latter are used in any way as denoting poit^er or ability. The 
infinitive of potcre is constantly used as a noun, meaning 
poiDcr : in mio potcre, in my power ; that is, literally, in my 
to be able. 



lo posso parlare, 
lo poUva scrivere, 
Iq potrb andire. 



I can speak, or, I am able to 

speak. 
I could write, or, I mas able to 

write, 
I can go, or, I shall he able to go. 



In this manner, pottre expresses the meaning of our to he 
able, and our can and could, throughout all its modes and 
times. 

I know that you may come, I lo soche potcte venire, 

I knew that you }night have come, j lo sapeva che Toi avrcite poUUo 

» venire. 

If it be our intention to express poiuer or ability by the may 
or might, then, in Italian, we must employ some part of this 
verb potcre, as in the above examples. The Italian of these is, 
translated as literally as possible, I know that you are able to 
come, I know that you woiild have been able to come. There 
"is a manner that the Italians have of using the verb sapcre, 
to know, in the sense of potcre. We use our verb to know ia 
a manner very much the same. We say to know how to do 
a thing, instead of to be able to do a thing. The Italians 
differ so far from us, that they use the verb to know without 
expressing our how; as: 

Non avendo sapiito n^ difend^rsi n^ i Not having been able either to de- 

fuggire, &c. Dav. S. | fend themselres, or to flee .. . 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



295 



Non li saprd corriggere, u6 conos- 
cere. Mac. P. 

Non seppe frenire i transport! della 
sua indignazione. Soa. N. 



lo stesso saprb spiaoirri la via. 



Soa. N. 



I 



He will not be able to govern tbejn, 
or to know them. 

He was not able to bridle the trana* 
ports of his indignation. 

I myself sAa// be able to smooth ths 
way for you. 



The meaning here is precisely the same as it would be in 
English to say, not having known how either to defend, he 
will not knoiv how to govern, he knew not how to bridle, I 
shall know how to smooth, 

218. The verb dove re is used, in the infinitive mode, as a 
noun, just as are volere and potere : faro il mio dovere, I will 
do my duty • that is, literally, I will do my to owe,- This verb, 
in its principal acceptation, has the same meaning as our verb 
to owe. It expresses owing ^ duty, and obligation, in various 
ways. Our word ought, used with other verbs as a sign of 
duty or obligation of some sort or other, seems to have its origin 
in our verb to owe. Dovere expresses the sense of this ought, 
and, also, of our must and our should, when those two are 
employed in the same sense that ought is. 



Vi dohbiiimo cento scellini, 

Ogniino devt fare quel che pu6, 

Che dobbiumo fare ? 

Deve esser cosl, 

Vol dovete esser piCi pradeate. 



We owe you a hundred shillings. 

Every one ought to do what he can* 

What must we 4o? 

It must be so. 

You should be more prudent. 



Dovere is frequently used in a sense signifying likelihood or 
pj'obability, in which sense we sometimes use our should or 
must. The Italians say, egli deve venire oggi, he should come 
to-day; that is, he is likely, or is expected, to come to-day. 
We frequently find the Italians using the infinitive of dovere 
as in the following examples, in which it is used as expressing 
this likelihood or probability: 



Non facendo I'icqua alcuna vista 
di dover ristare, &c. Boc. D. 

Pens6 costui dovtr esser tale quale 
la malvagita de* Borgognani il 
richiedea. Bqc. D. 

Fq giudicatodal Re rfoWr essere ec- 
cellente ministro, &c. Dav. S. 



I 



The rain not showing any sign of 
being likely to leave off. 

He thoaght that this one must be 
such as the wickedness of the 
people of Burgundy required him. 

He was judged by the king likely 
to be an excellent minister. 



296 * SYNTAX [Chap. 



La re;;inaCateriiia,c)ic cliinrnmt-nte 
conosct-va tnnta aniinu*itA dotire 
iin f^inrno proilurre qualche Rian 
male, Stc. JiAv. S. 



Qaeen Catherine, who clrnrly knew 
»o much animnsitj to be tikrlij 
one day to produce some great 
evil. 



219. The verbs atr/'c, to have, stare, to stand, essere, to 
be, fiire, to make or do, venire, to come, and anddre, to 
go ; tliese verbs have, as used with other verbs, some peculiar 
meanings, which it will be necessary here to notice. 

Ave RE, immediately followed by one or other of the prepo- 
sitions da or a, and the infinitive of another verb, serves to 
express duty or oiliyation, in the same manner that our verb 
to have does when we say we have to do a thing, or that we 
must or ought to do it ; as : 

Id ho da, or, a parlare, I T havf to speak. 

Jo aiLia da, or, a parldre, ! I had to speak. 

lo axiro da, or, a parlare, » I shall have to speak. 

And so on, throughout the verb Avcre. 

Stare, which is a very important verb in Italian, and has 
various significations, meaning to stand, to rcmaijiy to abidcy 
to consist, to diuell; this verb, being followed by the active 
participle of another verb, has somewhat the meaning of our 
verb to he as used with the active participle of other verbs; as: 



lo sto scrivcndo, 
lo stava scrivcndo, 
Jo siarb scri\cndo, 



I am writing. 
I nas writing. 
I shall be writing. 



And so on, throughout the verb Stare. 

We must not, however, from these examples, be induced to 
suppose, that the English verb to be, as used with the parti- 
ciple of another verb, is in all cases to be represented in this 
way, in Italian. Stare, here, means, strictly speaking, nothing 
more than to stand; and, as used in the above examples, 
means, I stand writing, I stood writing, I shall stand writing. 
We say, in English, I am running, I am walking; but, it 
would be nonsense to say, in Italian, io sto correndo, io sto 
comminando ; for, that would mean, I stand running, I stand 
walking. This verb, as thus used, is intended to express per- 
fect stillnesS) inasmuch as it supposes the actor as being in 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



297 



one spot, and not moving from it, while acting. — Stare, when 
followed by the preposition a and the infinitive of another verb, 
has nearly the same meaning as in the foregoing examples 
used with the participle ; as : 



To sto a scrivere, 
lo stdva a scrivere, 
lo starb a scrivere, 



I am writing. 

I was writing. 

I shall be writing. 



And so on, througlK)ut the verb Stare. 

When used with the preposition per and the infinitive of 

another verb, stare has the same sense as our to be ahoutj 

or to be ready to do, or to be upon the point of doing a 
thing; as: 



Jo sto per morire, 
To stava per morire, 
To starb per morire. 



T am abotit to die. 
I was about to die. 
I shall be about to die. 



And so on, throughout the verb Stare. 

EssEiiE, when followed by the preposition per and the infi- 
nitive of another verb, expresses oiir to be going to do a. 
thing; as: 



lo soyio per ridere, 
lo era per ritiere, 
lo sarb per ridere, 



I am going \o laugh. 
I was going to laugh. 
I shall be going to laugh. 



And SO on, throughout the verb Essere. 

Fare, used as a reflected verb, when follow^ed by the pre- 
position a and the infinitive of another verb, conveys the mean- 
ing of our to set oneself to do, or to set about doing, a thing ;: 
as: . 



To mifo a leggere, 

To mifaceva a lesfgere, 

lo mi/arb a leggere, 



I set about reading. 
I did set about reading. 
I shall set a6(m< readiuir. 



And so on, throughout the verb Fare. 

Fare, as used in the above manner, may mean, also, to" 
approach, or io put oneself forward : as, io viifo a parlarvi, 
I approach OY go forwa^'d to speak to you. 

Venire and andaue are both used in those cases^ wherein 
we use the verb to go or the verb to keepy with the active par- 

o5 



298 SYNTAX [Chap. 

ticiplc of another verb, signifying continuation in the doing of 
a thing. We say, to go on walking, to go 07i speaking, or, 
to keep on walking, to keep on speaking, meaning, to con- 
tinue to tvalkf to continue to speak. The Italians have no 
verb employed in this way, like our verb to keep. But their 
and/ire is here used precisely as we use our to go • and, in the 
•sense of our to keep or to go, they also use their venire, to 



come. 

Indarno gli tenne eWarappresentando 
y insapeiabile avver6i6i>e che gli 
portiva. Soa. N. 



In vain she kept (or went) on repre- 
senting to faim the insuperable ha> 
tred that she bore him. 



II tiorcheint.'ittbio rairf/ijn«pr6an(/o. I The flower that I continued to pre- 

Ari.O. F. I srrf« for myself untouched. 

VCngnnsi caricando di dcbiti ecce- I They keep {^or yo) on burdening Xhem- 
denti. Soa. N. I selves with immense debti. 

Qaesta (la noja) doviir.que and^va, I This (sorrow), wherever he went, 
il veniva dapperlutto accompag- I kept (or went) on accompanying 

nando. Soa. N. ' bim. 

Here we see that the verb penire, along with the active parti- 
ciple of another verb, may e.xpress our to keep on, to go on, 
or to continue. If there be bodily yyiotion to be expressed in 
using our to go in such cases as these, then the Italians use 
andare ; m, if I mean by the phrase I go on speaking that I 
am ivalking while I speak, or that I am actually moving on- 
ward in any way at the same time that I speak, then I ought 
to say, io vo parlando, and not io vengo parldndo. But, 
though venire should not be used when actual motion is in- 
tended to be expressed, but only to express the continuation of 
the act or state of being described by the participle, the verb 
andare msiy, nevertheless, be employed in either case, just as 
our verb to go may be. I say may be, because very good 
writers have used andare in both of these cases. I may say, 
I go on speaking, supposing myself to be sitting still while 
I speak, as well as, 1 go on speaking, supposing myself to be 
walking while I speak. So, in Italian : 



La giovane della sua sciagiira doKn- 
dosi, ttitlo il di per Io salvatiro loco 
»' andd avvolijcndo. Bot. D. 



The youDg woman, grieving at her 
misfortune, all that day went on 
wandering throQ^b the wild place. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 299 

La sperinza d'un impie^j^o, die ognor I The hope of an employment, which 
par^va ricino, nel suo cordo^liu j always seemed at hand, continufd 
V anddva racconsolundo^ SoA. N. ' to consolt h\m in hia AQUction. 

The use of andare, in the first of these examples, is undoubt- 
edly correct, because bodily movement is distinctly given to be 
understood in the participle avvolgcndo, wandering. But the 
Editor of Galignani*s Grammar, from which I take these 
two examples, condemns Soave's " anddva racconsoldndOy* 
there being, as he says, not the smallest shade of motion 
intended to be expressed as to the impiegOy the employment. 
It should, therefore, he says, have been il veniva racconsol' 
dndOf and not Vanddva racconsoldndo. In Soave*s 6th and 
16th novel, part 1, and 14th novel, part 2, we see andare used 
in a similar way : 

£I1aan</at<a ad ogniistantertrAi* I She went on, at every instant 
amdndo suo figlio, I calling upon her son. 

Una Toce flebile si ascoltava, che | A feeble voice was heard, that 
and«uarj/>e<c'ndo, AhjSohepinI | tventonrepeating, Ah, Sohe^iinl 

Gli esempi di generosity che d«- 1 The examples of generosity that 
didmo narrando, iic. 1 v/e go on relating. 

There is here no sort of bodily movement understood in the 
persons calling upon and relating, any more than in the voice 
repeating ; yet we see that the verb andare is employed, in 
Italian, as well as the verb to go, in English. The Editor of 
Galignani ridicules the anddva, used instead oi veniva, in 
the foregoing example from Soave. But this is only cavilling, 
I think. The truth is, that, unless some actual bodily move- 
ment be intended to be expressed, it is hatjigurative language 
to use either anddre or venire in such cases. I leave it, hovv- 
ever, to critics more able than I am to say, whether the use of 
anddre in both manners be correct Italian ; giving, at the same 
time, the following examples, in which anddre is used in a 
manner precisely like that which the Editor of Galignani 
so much condemns in his criticism on Soave. 

II re «sp6se 1' intento suo di trovar | The king made known liis intention 
rimedio alle tmbolenze che andd- I of finding a remedy for the disturb- 
«ano soigendo. Dav. S. * ances which uewi o« aji^jn^. 



Ma anddrono tanto serpcndo qneste 
opiniooi disseminate nella chiesa di 
Dio, &c. ' Dav. S. 



But these notions disseminated in the 
church of God, nent creeping on so 
much ... 



300 



SYNTAX 



[Chap, 



1/ iniiidiose pr.^tirhe rhe prr ordine 
i\e\ le anduva Jaciiitlo AnKinio del 
Prato, &c, Dav. S. 

Chi va prnjfrrcndo e $etnin('indo il sno 
consi^lio, &c. D. Cas. G. 

Dell, perrliO vo le mie pifiRlie tocc/tndo? 
I'erclicl' uvuto ben vo rimembraudo ? 

Ari. O. F. 

Quel Paladin, dicheti laivanlundo.kc. 

Aiu.O. f. 



The intidions ploU, which, by roin- 
man'l of th'> king, Antonio del Pratu 
nent on makiriff. 

lie who fffies on ofTering and dittri' 
butiiiff his advice, . • . 

Ah, why do I go on touching my 
wounds ? Why do I go on rtman' 
hiTivg the happiness enjoyed ? 

That Peer, of whom thou goett on 
vapouring ... 



The different acts here described by ^orrjcndo, serpCndo, 
fachido, jjroffcrhido, semuiando, tocc/indo, rimembrando, 
and vantdndoy are all meaned to be expressed as having con- 
tinuation in them ; yet, there is certainly nothing like actual 
onotion to be understood in the persons and things, which 
are the nominatives of anddvano, anddrono, anddva, va, 
vo, vai. 

2c/. 0/ the Time. 

220. There are three times; namely, the present, the pasty 
and the future . In our present and past time we, in English, 
use the verb to be and the verb to do as auxiliaries, and we use 
the verb to be as an auxiliary in the future time; as: 

I speak, 

I am speaking, 

or 
I do speak. 

1 spoke, ^ 

I was speaking, 

or 
I did speak. 

I shall speak, 

or 
I shall be speaking. 

And so en, through other parts of the rerb to speak, or any 
other verb. I have mentioned, in speaking of the Modes, 
that the veils to be and to do are not thus used by the Ita- 
lians ; and that they say, using only one woi:d to express the 
meaning of the verb, io pjarlo, I s] eak, io parlaif I spoke, io 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



301 



parlerhj I shall speak; and so on. The main thing that we 
have to attend to, in considering the Time, is, the two different 
ways of expressing the past time which the Italians have in 
their language, and which we have not in ours. In speaking 
of this matter, we will first take the indicative mode alone, 
and then go to the subjunctive and conditional. 

221. By referring to the conjugations of the verbs (Para- 
graph 63), "we see that there are, in the indicative mode, two 
ways of expressing past time with the verb in a simple form, 
and three ways of expressing past time with the verb in a 
coynpoimd form. First, let us consider the two ways with 
the verb in the simple form. Our phrases, I had, I was, 
I'lovedy and all such, may, in Italian, be expressed in tw^o 
perfectly different manners : 



I had. 



i 



aveva, 




{ 


JO era 


or 


I was, 


or 


io cbbi. 




10 Jui. 



I loved, 



C 



10 amavuy 

or 
10 amai. 



And so on, with all the verbs in the Italian language. When 
the past time of the Italian verb is after the first manner, that 
is, like aveva, era, amdva, it is said to be in the past imper- 
fect time ; when it is after the second manner, that is, like 
ebbi, fuif amdi, it is said to be in the past perfect time. As 
relates to the two past times, the Italian language is much the 
same as the French : there is nothing in either of these two 
languages that so much puzzles us as to know, when to use one 
of these forms of the verb and when the other; and there is no 
particular as to which grammarians have given us so little 
satisfactory explanation. We may find many very able works 
on Italian grammar written by French grammarians, or written 
in French by Italians ; but, such works are intended to teach 
the Italian language to those who already know French, and 
there is so little difference between the Italian and the French 
in respect to the Times of the verb, that those grammarians 
who have written in the French language have not thought 
them a point of any consequence. So that, though we may, 
in many particulars, learn a great deal of Italian grammar from 
works upon that subject w^ritten in French, we must know, 



302 ^ SYNTAX [Chap. 

beforehand, something al>out the difference between the two 
past times, or remain, for what such works would teach us, in 
the same ignorance that we were in before reading thena. A» 
to those grammarians who have written in our own language, 
they have, indeed, done but very little to make this matter 
clear. I have seen the work of but one author, that has mada 
any thing like an attempt at explanation. In Signor Galig- 
UANi's Lectures there is something said on the subject; but 
though it would be unjust to say, that the observations there 
made are of no use to us, it would be equally unjust to saj 
that they are all that is required. 

222. The two forms of the verb both equally apply to a time 
that is past as to that in which we are speaking; they both 
refer us to some circumstance which had place at a time gone 
by : but, as respects the time to which they refer ^ that is, the 
time at which the circumstance we are speaking of is supposed 
to have occurred, the meaning of the one is very different from 
that of the other. To make some general definition as to the 
difference which generally distinguishes the one form of the 
verb from the other, we may give this as the rule : that the 
past imperfect time must be employed to express the idea of 
some act, or some state of being, which occurred at a time past, 
but which, at the time past at which it occurred, had duration 
in it, and was not then concluded or brought to a termina^ 
Hon • some act then continuing to be done^ or some state of 
being then having more or less of permanency or lastingness 
in it : and the past perfect time must be employed , when we 
■wish it to be understood that the act or state of being described 
was limited in its duration, even as to the time past referred to, 
that it Avas then, at that time, concluded or brought to a 
termination. Let us see what G align an i says about this 
matter. " Take particular notice, that the imperfect expresses 
" an action which was doing, and which was not yet accom- 
** plished during the time of another past action. The perfect 
" expresses an action which is, or ought to be, entirely past, 
'' Example: if I say, io me ne andava da vostra sorella, 
*' qnando io vi vidi, I was going to your sister, when I saw 
**you; anddvay in this instance, is imperfect^ because it is 



XX.J OF VERBS. 303 

" not known whether I really went to your sister or no ; but if 
" I say, ANDAi ieri da vostra soi'clla, I went yesterday, to 
" your sister ; in that case, it is perfect, because it is fully 
*' understood that I went there. The imperfect likewise ex- 
" presses an habitual action, or one often repeated in time 
*' past, &c. lo ANDAVA quusi ogni sera a far visita alia, 
'^ celebre Corilla, I went almost every evening to pay a visit 
" to the famous Gorilla (that is to say, I used to go)." In 
addition to this, he says : " It is a very mistaken, but prevalent 
" notion, that the English has no imperfect tense {time) ; forJ 
*' whenever they say, I was speaking, I was fearing, I was 
^^ finishing , &c. they convey precisely the same idea as the 
" Italian tenses io parldva, io temcva, io finwa. The 
** English, therefore, want this tense only in the verb to have, 
" and to he, and vary from the Italians in the use of it in some 
^* instances. Nevertheless, if learners could remember, that 
" whenever the English use such com'pound tense, or that it 
" could be possible to use it, the Italian imperfect must " 
^* be adopted, they might avoid a number of mistakes too fre- 
*' quent among, the students of the Italian language." The 
reason here given by Signor Galignani for the verb being 
put in the imperfect, in the example io me ne andava, &c., 
is but a poor reason. He says the verb is here put in the 
imperfect " because it is not known whether I went or not.'* 
Then, again, in the other example, andai ieri, &c., he says 
the verb is here in the perfect, '' because it is fully under^ 
stood that I went." To account, here, for the difference in the 
verb, such reasons as these are very insufficient. It is not at 
all the certainty or uncertainty as to whether the act of going 
was or was not performed that causes the difference ; the act 
of going is as much to be believed in, as having taken place, 
in the one case as in the other. The difference in the verb is 
occasioned merely because, in the first example, the act of 
going is understood as not liaving been completed, as not 
having been fully performed, fulfilled, or finished, at the 
time past referred to, and it is meaned, that I was only in the 
act of performing , that is, proceeding in the act of perform^ 
ing, the going, when I saw you; and this, consequently, leaves 



304 



SYNTAX. 



[Chap. 



it to be understood, that my going was not -perfectly performedy 
OT finished, at that time. While, in the second example, the 
going is simply stated as having been performed yesterday, 
without there being any thing to give us to understand that, at 
the past time referred to, the act of going was merely under- 
going performance, that it was only being performed, and 
that it was not fulfilled, completed, or finished. In SioxoR 
Gai.ignani's first example there are two verbs; there is the 
vidi, I saw, as well as the anddva, I was going. The vidi is 
in the past perfect, like the and/ii in the second exan)ple, and 
for the same reason : these two verbs both serve, as used here, to 
describe acts performed and completed at a time past; while the 
anddva, I was going, does, as before said, describe the act as 
not being completed, or brought to any thing like a conclusion 
at the time past alluded to. Upon this principle, the anddva in 
the third example of Signor Galignani is in the imperfect: 
lo anddva quasi agni giorno, I went almost every day ; that is, 
as Galignani says, I used to go, meaning, it was my cuS' 
torn, or habit, to go. The act is here described as having 
continuance in it; it was usual, customary, or habitual, and 
could not, therefore, be supposed as being completed, or as 
having any conclusion, during the time past alluded to. Ol>- 
serve the following example : 



AU' 6mbra d'un l>el faggio Silria e Filli 
Sedian un giorno, ed io con loro insicme, 
Quando un'apeingegnosa, checogliendo 
Sen yiva il niel per que' prati fioriti, 
Alle guance di Fillide Tolando, 
Le murse e le rhnorse avidatnente. 

Tas, a. 



Under the shade of a fine beech-tree 
Silvia and Phillis sat one day, and 

" I together with them, when a crafty 
bee, wliich went collecting honey 
through those flowery meads, flying 
to the cheeks of Phillis, bit them, 
and bit tiiem again greedily. 



And then, again, that example which I have already given in 
speaking of the Mode : 



Se donuiaii gli antichi una cor6na 
A chi salvisse n un cittadin la vita, &c. 

Abi. O. F. 



If the ancients gave a crown to whom- 
soever saved the life of a citizen. , 



Here the verbs sedcre , to sit, gire, to go about, and dondre, 
to give, are in the imperfect ; while mordere, to bite, and 
rirnordere, to bite again, are in the perfect. We might say. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 305 

in these instances, Silvia and Phillis were sitting one day ; a 
crafty bee, which was ffoiiig, or ivent on, collecting honey ; 
the ancients used to give, or had the custom or habit of 
giving. And here we see that the verbs in the imperfect are 
used in a manner similar to the examples given by Signor 
Galignani with the verb anddva. The sitting of the per- 
sons under the shade, and the going collecting honey of the 
bee, are not circumstances spoken of as being both begun and 
concluded at any instant of the time referred to : these evidently 
had continuation in them, and there is nothing to express any 
thing like a limit to their duration. Again, the ancients gave^ 
they used to give ; not that they gave only OTiCe, or at several 
distinct periods; the giving was habitual, and could not, 
therefore, be said to be an act that was, at any one time, com- 
pleted ov finished. With the two other verbs, on the contrary, 
we see the past perfect time necessarily employed : the act of 
biting was once done, and accomplished, at two different 
periods in the course of the time that the bee was going, w^as 
continuing to go collecting honey, and that the persons were 
sitting, were continuing to sit, under the shade. 

Mentre I'esercito forntita diFrancia, I While the army re<2(r?iffZ from France, 
lire co?iLoc(i un concilio, I the king caZ/ed a council. 

Compnrdva Cicerone gli amici finti j Cicero compared false friends to swal- 
alle roadini, j lows. 

That is to say, while the army was returning ; Cicero used to 
compare. If I were to mean, not that it was customary with 
Cicero to make such a comparison, but that he made it, under- 
stood upon some single or particular occasion, then I should 
say, 

Comparb Cicerone gli amici tinti alle rondini. 

Again, if I were to mean, that, while the king luas calling a 
council the army returned from France, then tornare would 
be in the perfect, and convocdre in the imperfect time : 

Mentre il re convocdva an concilio, I'esercito tomb di Francia. 

223. Thus, then, we see, why it is that the one is called 
the past imperfect, and the other the past perfect time. 



.'306 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



We fiee, also, to a certain extent, when it is that the past im- 
perfect is required, and when it would not he right to use the 
past perfect : namely, in all such cases as those in which we, 
in English, can express the continuation or incompleteness in 
what is described by the verb, by employing the past time of 
our verb to be with the active participle of another verb, or by 
employing our word usedy or some other word serving to denote 
habit, custom, or frequency. So far as this, the matter is 
tolerably well explained by Sic. nor Galignani and his 
Editor. But, it is not in every case that we can, in comparing 
the two languages, translate the meaning of the Italian imper- 
fect by employing our verb to be as an assistant, or by employ- 
ing our word used, or any word having the same sort of sense. 
Take, for example, the verbs in the following passage, which 
is the beginning of one of So aye's little novels. 



Riccardo Macwill, fiiflio d'un ricco 
mercatante di Dublino, all' avve- 
nenza della pers6na, e ella sagaciU 
dello spirito, unita nn cnor tenero 
e compassionevole, chc ben piCi pre- 
g^ToIi rendeva in lai gli altri doui 
dell.i naturat Trovindosi egli per 
coram^rcio in Algeri, vide un giornp 
approddre un naviglio, su cai crano 
due giovani donne che dirottaraente 
piangcvano. Intenerito a tal vista, 
si avcicinb a domaadarne contezza, 
e udl che iraiio due giovani schiave 
predate recentemcnte, e Ucondotte 
a mercato. 



Richard Macwill, son of a rich mer- 
chant of Dublin, with the cotnelines* 
of his person, and with the sagacity 
of his mind, united a heart kind and 
compassionate, which rendered in 
him bis other natural gifLs of much 
more worth. Being at Algiers, en- 
gaged in commerce, he saw one day 
come towards the shore a vessel, oa 
board of which nere two young la- 
dies, who wept violently. Moved at 
such a sight, he approached to ask 
some account of them, and he heard 
that they were two young slaves re- 
cently carried off, and brought there 
for sale. 



In this passage are eight verbs, all of which are in the past 
time. Here are univa, rendeva, crano, pianyevano, eranOy 
in the past imperfect; and, vide^ avvicinb, udl, in the past 
perfect. Now, if we consider these verbs that are in the per- 
fect, we see that they, like the vidi and andai in the two firgt 
of Galignanj's examples before noticed, each describe ao 
act in which no continuation or incompleteness is at all 
necessarily understood : he saw the vessel come, approached 
to ask some account, heard what the ladies were ; these are 
all acts successively accomplished during the time past spoken 
of, and in each of which there is something fairly brought to 



XX.] OF VERBS. 307 

pass. Then, we see the imperfect piangtvano, the ladies 
wept; that is, as we should translate it, they were weepmg ; 
they were going on weeping at the time the vessel approached. 
This verb, then, as here used in the imperfect, corresponds 
with SiGNOR Galignani's Io andavcij I luas going. But, 
what shall we say to the univa? Here is the accomplishing 
or perfecting of nothing expressed by this verb. We should 
not say, here, he was uniting a kind heart, or, he used to 
wiite, it was his custom^ or habit to unite a kind heart : yet, 
the verb is here in the imperfect time ; and there is good reason 
for its being so. The man's uniting comeliness of person and 
sagacity of mind with a good heart, was not an act in him 
that could be supposed to be finished or concluded, at the 
past time referred. The verb immediately following, namely, 
rendeva, this is also, as necessarily, in the imperfect. His 
goodness of heart rendered his other gifts of more worth. His 
uniting the one quality with the other, and the goodness of 
his heart rendering his other gifts of more worth: these 
were circumstances characteristic of the mans general life^ 
and must, consequently, as such, have been of some du' 
ration, 

224. In the passage I have quoted, there is another verb, 
namely, erano, which is there twice used. This verb^ the verb 
esserey to be, is one of so much importance as respects the two 
past times, that it will require a particular notice of itself. The 
verb to be, like some other verbs, does not represent an act : it 
represents only the existence of things. It seems, then, at first, 
natural to suppose, that this verb must, in Italian, always be in 
the imperfect time, seeing that a thing cannot have existence 
without lasting or continuing to be for more or less of time. 

225. We must observe, then, that, in speaking of the being 
of persons or things, the verb is always in the imperfect, if we 
be speaking, not of time past in general, but of some particular 
time. There is a particular time alluded to in the erano in the 
foregoing passage. The ladies were on board the vessel, tbey 
were two young slaves, at the time the man perceived the vessel 
approach. The first erano represents thesimple being of the ladies, 
the second represents what they were • the same verb is expressive. 



308 SYNTAX [Chap. 

in both cases, of something that must have had duration at the 
time referred to. But, if we mean to speak of persons or things 
as merely having formerly had existence, and we do not allude 
to any particular time at all, the verb is put in the perfect ; 
because, we then speak of the circumstance of beirig as some- 
thing past as to the time in which we are relating it, without 
expressing its presence at any particular time before the rela- 
tion. For example: 



Fn in Lunigiana, paete nrfn multodn 
questo lontuao, un n]onast6rin, &c. 

Bvc. D. 



There nas in Lunigiana, a conntrj* not 
very far from this, a nunastery. 



Though the existence of the person or thing be expressed by the 
verb in the perfect, the state of existence being supposed as 
perfectly passed, as to the present time, and no particular time 
past being referred to ; yet, if there be any circumstance spoken 
of as appertaining to, or as serving to characterize in any way, 
the person or thing during existence^ the verb representing that 
circumstance may be in the imperfect • as: 

Fu secondo che io gii intesi in Peru- i There was, as I oBce beard, a yoath 
gia un giovane il cm nome era An- I in Perugia whose name nas An- 
dreuccio di Pietro. Boc. D. I drenccio di Pietro. 

Nella terra di Prato/«( giluno statuto, i' In the country of Prate th<»re nas 
il quale senza niuna diblinzione t once a law, which, without any 



comandaca, &c. Boc. D. 1 distinction, commanded . . . 

In these examples, the existence of the monaster}', of the youth, 
and of the law, are spoken of as circumstances having had 
place formerly, but without any particular time being even 
alluded to. But the existence of the youth's name, and what 
the law commanded, were circumstances necessarily depending 
on, and continuing during the existence of the youth and the 
law ; and, as being regarded in that sense, the verbs expressing 
those circumstances are put in the imperfect. There is, how- 
ever, no absolute rule in such cases. The truth is, that the 
Italians, in using the verb cssere, to express that somebody 
or something did exist in an indefinite past time, sometimes 
speak of the existence, as a circumstance simply past, as 
to the present time and now entirely gone by, and at other 
times they speak of it, as a circumstance at some former time, 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



309 



hdving duration in it, though, as to the present time, it be en- 
tirely gone by. 



Era, lion e lango tempo passdto, im 
Tedesco a Trivigi chiamdto Arrigo. 

Boc. D. 

Fu gi;\ nella nostra citta un cavalliere 
il cui nome/u Messer Tedaldo. 

Boc. D 



There was, not a long time ago, a 
German at Trivigi called Arrigo. 

There was formerly in our city a gen- 
tleman whose name was Master 
Tedaldo. 



Here is era, in the one instance, and fu in the other, though 
the idea intended to be expressed, is, as nearly as possible, the 
same in both instances. In the latter example, the existence of 
the man*s name, like that of the man himself, is expressed by 
the verb in the perfect ; while, in the first examples of the 
two before given, a circumstance, precisely similar, is expressed 
b}'^ the imperfect: 



f u un giovane il cui nome era .... 
Fu gia un cavalliere 11 cui nome 



There was a youth whose name 

was .... 
There was formerly a gentleman 

whose name nas .... 



One very important thing, as regards the verb to be in Italian 
is, that when this verb is employed, in the past time, as an 
auxiliary with the passive participle of an active verb, the 
auxiliary must be in the past perfect. Speaking of a king, the 
Italians would say, 



Egli fu coronato, quando era auc6ra 
/anciullo, 



He was crowned, when, he was yet a 
child. 



Now, observe here, the king's being a child is a circumstance 
that may have duration in it. It is a circumstance character- 
istic of the king, it is a state of being in which he may con- 
tinue for a time. But, the being crowned expresses only the 
suffering of an act done to the king, and the verb to be is here 
employed not to express the king's being in a crowned state, 
but only his havhig the crowning done to him. But, if we 
were to use the participle as an adjective, then the Italian 
verb to be, as accompanying the corondto, would be in the im- 
perfect : 



He, wh«n he was yet a child, was a j 
vrorvned king.. i 



Egli, quando era anc6ra fanciuUo, er« 
unre coronuto. 



310 SYNTAX [Chap. 

In the following examples this principle is clearly illustrated : 

lo era piCl innocrnte che lii non sei ; l I nas more irmocmt than thoa art; 
par Tcdi a qual te'rminc J'ui eon- I yet m« to what an eod I wut 



dvtto. 



SoA. N. 



brought. 



Lucullo, qaando/ii mnrirfafo contra a i Lncollus, when be n'ns si^t against 
Mitridatr, era al tutto inrsjtcrto I MitHri dates, roaa tntinly ignorant 

dtflla guerra. Mac. D. I of war. 



Arrestutijurono subitam^nte qnanti 
crano n«lla casa. Soa. >. 

Dopo la pubblicazi6ne dc* iniei Dii- i 

\oghi, /ui chiamato a Roma. I 

Gal. L. I 

Nel tempo cbe i Francesi tli Cicilia t 

J'urono caccidtif &c. Bot. D. [ 



As many as nere in the house were 
arrested immediately. 

After the publication of my Dialo^es» 
I yvai called to Rome. 



At the time when the French nere 
driven from Cicily. 



Here we see era, era^ erano, the past imperfects, because they 
are used in expressing what \v?iS characteristic of the persons* 
or their state of beitifj merely. There are the adjectives inno- 
cente and inesperto, with the two first, and tliere is the nella 
casa, with the last. The one person's being innocent ^ the 
other's beiiig ignorant, and the being of the people in the 
house : here is something like states of being with duration in 
them. But the being brought, the being sent, the being ar- 
rested, the bei7ig called, the being driven ; in all these, the 
verb t'ssere is used only to express the receipt of an act per- 
formed and effected, and not to express any thing characteristic 
of the persons spoken of, or any state of existence in which they 
might continue to be. 

226, It very frequently occurs, that the verb may be in the 
past perfect time, although the act or state of being described 
by the verb be, at the same time, expressed as having continua- 
tion or duration in it ; as: 



Filippo sosteune piil anni la tjuerra 
contro a quelli, &c. Mac. Pb. 

Fece uno stato, che durb piCl cbe otto- 
cento anni. Mac. Dis. 

Sttttero Rowa e Sparta molti stcoli 
annate e libere. Mac. Ph. 

Appresso Niima Pompilio regnb Tal- 
lio Ostilio trentadac anni. 

G. Vit. S. 



Philip sustained war for many years 

against those . . . 

He (Licur^us) established a state 
which lasted more than 800 yean. 

Rome and Sparta remained many 
ages armed and free. 

After Noma Pompilius, TuUius Hos« 
tilius reigned thirty- two years. 



XX.] OF VERBS. 311 

Here the many years, more than eight hundred years, many 
ages J thirty -two years: these show that the circumstances ex- 
pressed by the verbs must have had duration in them at a time 
past* Bat these circumstances had all arisen, and had ceased 
to continue, long before the time at which they were spoken of 
by the writers above quoted. These writers were not referring to 
a particular time during which these circumstances were in con- 
tinuation. The sustaining, lasting, remaining, and reigning, 
were things which were both begun and ended during a time 
long before they were thus spoken of. 

227. We have now to speak of the three compound times. 
They are called compound, because they are made up of one or 
other of the auxiliary verbs, to have and to he, and the passive 
participle of another verb. The first is the compound of the 
present time ; as: io ho amdto, I have loved, tu hai creduto, 
thou hast believed, egli ha sentito, he has felt. Here is the 
auxiliary avere, to have, in the present time, and the participles 
passive of the verbs amdre, credere, and sentire. Here both 
languages have but the one form. Yet the Italians require this 
compound time to be employed, in some cases, where we do 
not. We must, in Italian, always use the compound of the 
present, instead of the past perfect time, whenever we speak of 
a thing in any time which is only partly gone by, and in which 
we yet are; as, when we say to-day, this morning, this week, 
this month, this year, this age, this century. 

I sa?D him to day, i U ho veduto ogg\. 

I spoke to him this morning, | Gli ho parlaio stamattina. 

And, not Io vidi oggi, ^\ parlai stamattina. We might say 
either, I saw him, or, I have seen him, I spoke to him, or, I 
have spoken to him. But, in Italian, the rule is, that, in such 
cases, the compound must be used. Besides this, the Italians 
frequently use the compound of the present, instead of the past 
perfect, in cases in which we could not 3 as : 



M# Be parlb jeri, 

or, 
Me ne ha pdrlato jiii, 



)a»Jdjeri, - -^ 

or, > He spoke to me of it yesterday. 

ha pdrlatojiii, ^ 

That is, he spoke to me, or, he has spoken to me, of it yester- 



312 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



day. Tlie latter of these is not, we know, customary with us. 
But it is, however, very common in Italian. The following is a 
striking example : 



Passat il Rrnn a Spirn, ritta piCk no- 
minJtaclie belln. Ji o passuto poi 
il Danobio a Ulma. Ben. L. 



I pas^rd the Uliine at Spira, a city 
more faoMiis than beantiful. I then 
hare passed the Danabe at Ulm. 



We should put the verb only in the one form : I passed^ I then 
passed. But the Italians frequently use the compound as in 
the above example. 

228. The two other compound times are, the compound of 
the past imperfecta and the compound of the past perfect. 
Here the two languages differ materially again. We see, by 
looking at the conjugations of verbs, that, in using the auxilia- 
ries avere, to have, and tssere^ to be, the Italians have two 
ways of expressing the compound of the past : 





L 


10 avcva avuto. 


I had had, 


or, 




io 6bbi avuto. 




{ 


io ira stdlo. 


I had been, 


or, 




io fui ttuto. 




c 


io cvcva ainato. 


I had loved, 


{ 


or, 
io tbbi amulo. 



These two forms of the verb must, both of them, always give as 
to understand the occurrence of some one circumstance before 
some other circumstance. When I say, I had had y I had been, 
I had loved, I must mean that my having, being, loving, 
occurred before something else occurred, whether that some- 
thing else were the doing of an act, the being of a person or 
thing in some way, or a mere point or period of time. Now^ 
observe : that occurrence wViich is expressed by the compound 
of the past, is sometimes the thing which it is the principal 
intention, or main design, of the person speaking to men- 
tion; and, at other times, that occurrence is intended to be 
spoken of as a thing which, as to time, was merely inci- 
dental to, and sen'ing merely to determine the date of, some 
other occurrence. In Signor Galignani's conjugation of 
the verb avcre he illustrates this point with the following 
examples : 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



313 



lo hviva atn'ito tempo d'esamindre 
ogni co»a prima ch' egli arrivasse, 

Tosto che io cbbi avuto la sua rispos- 
ta, mi ritirdi, 



l-had had time to obserre every thing 
before he came. 

As soon as I had had his reply, I r«- 
tired. 



Here we see our had had, which is used in both cases, re- 
presented, in Italian, first by avcva avdto, the compound of 
the past imperfect, and, then, by ebbi avuto, the compound 
of the past perfect. But Galignani gives no sort of reason 
why this is the case. In the first example, the having had 
time to examine every thing is, evidently, the occurrence 
which it is the principal intention to speak of, and the before 
he arrived merely denotes the period of time^ at which the cir- 
cumstance of having had time to examine every thing existed. 
Then, in the other example, it is as evident, that the retiring 
is the occurrence which it is the principal intention to speak of, 
and the as soon as I had had his reply is a circumstance that 
merely denotes the period of time at ,vhich it occurred to the 
speaker to retire. Let us take Signor Galignani's two 
other examples, which are given in his conjugation of the verb 



essere : 

Io era stato a comprar della carta 

prima ch' egli arrivdsse, 
Snbito che /ut stato a prender con- 

gedo da lui, se ne parti, 



1 had been to buy some paper before 
he arrived. 

As soon as I had been to take leave of 
him, he set off. 



Here the verbs are used in a way precisely similar to that in 
which we see them in the two former examples. In the first of 
these, the having been is the circumstance which it is our main 
design to mention, and his arrival is the circumstance of se- 
condary moment; again, in the second, his setting off is the 
circumstance which it is our main design to mention, and the 
having been only serves to denote the time when his setting 
off took place. There isj to be sure, a good deal of nicely iu 
this distinction; yet, the distinction is made by the Italians, 
and it is necessary to observe it. Let it be considered, then, as 
a rule, that, whenever the circumstance to be spoken of in the 
compound of our English past time is one which it is our prin- 
cipal object to mention, then, in all cases, we must employ the 
compound of the livM-^n 'pastimperfect. If, on the contrary, 



314 SYNTAX [Chap. 

we be fipcriking of two circumstances, and that one which is, in 
our language, spoken of in the compound, be mentioned as 
being merely incidental to, or serving to determine the time of 
the occurrence of, another circumstance ; then, in Italian, we 
must employ theconijwund of the past perfect. There are cer- 
tain words which are employed to express time, and which, so 
used, serve as luihs between two circumstances, and express the 
relation, as to time, which the occurrence of the one has to that 
of the other. These are adverbs of time, by some called 
conjunctions. In Signor Galignani's examples, just given, 
there are suhito che^ as soon as, and tosto die, ^as soon as ; in 
addition to which there are the words poichc, when, or after ; 
appena, hardly or scarcely; quando, when ; dappoi che, after; 
dopo che, after ; no7i si tosto, no sooner ; si tosto come, as soon 
as ; come, when, or as soon as, and che, which is sometimes 
used in the sense of our when. And, observe, the compound 
of the perfect is never used without, at the same time, one of 
these words, which are signs of the dependence of one circum- 
stance on another as to time, being used along with it. I will 
here give a few examples, in which these words are used, and 
in all of which we shall see that the compound of the perfect is 
employed according to the rule just given. 

Poicb^ I'ora del mangidre/u venuta, I When the time for eating lias come, 
anddrono & SKd^re. Boc. D. I they uent to sit down. 

Poiche cbbero il diginn rotto, comin- J After they had broken their fast, they 
ciurono a cantare. Boc. D. I began to sing. 



^'on \i fui appena compurso, chela 
corte mi destinb a quel carico. 

Ben. L. 



I had hardly appear edih^t, •when the 
covxrl dfslintd me to that employ- 
ment. 



Costiii nnn si tosto veduta ebbe la I He had no sooner seen the canvass, 
tela, che ticonokbe il val6re. I than he knew the value. 



SoA. N. 



I 



DappoichO/« morte Otto III, li elet- j After Otho III had died, the electors 

I6ri etissero Arrigo I. G. Vil. S. I elected Arrigo I. 

Quando cbbe desindto, usci di casa. | When he had dined, h« ii7'»i( oat of 

Sac. N. I doors. 



II fanciOUo, come sentito I' ebbe ca- 
dere, cosi corse a dirlo alia donna. 

Boc. D. 



The boy, as soon as he had heard him 
fall, immediately ran to tell it to the 
woman. 



ConcAiiisoch' et6c"qnesto nel pensiero, j When he had settled this in bis Bind, 
Koye arnacritrov^, &c. Abi. O.F. j he/ownd new arms ., . 



XX.] OP VERBS. 315 

229. As to ^Q future time, there is but little difference be- 
tween the two languages. There is one simple form, and one 
compound form, in the verb ; and these two Italian forms 
exactly correspond with ours. ' 

lo farb, I 1 shall do. 

lo avrb/attOf I \ shall have done. 

In speaking of a future time, we frequently put one verb in 
the/w^wre and another in the -present time. As, \ will tell 
him if he comes, I shall speak when he is gone. The Italians, 
in such cases, almost always put both verbs in the future : gli 
dirb se verrd, I will tell him if he shall come ; lo parlerb 
quando sard partito, I shall speak when he shall be gone. 
When se, if; quando, when ; quanto, as long as or while, are 
used thus, the two verbs are, almost always, both in the future 
in Italian : 

Ci verr6 volentierL se il padrone lo i I will come here •willingly i/ my mas- 
accorderiL. . GOL. Com. | ter permits it 

yQiiando ne sard il tempo, avviserotti. j When the time for it is, I will tell 

Abi. O.F. I thee. 

lo ho amato Guiscardo, e quanto vi- l I have lored Guiscardo, and while I 
ver6 1'amer6. Boc. D. | /jdc I shall lore him. 

That is, shall permit, shall he, shall live. However, it fre- 
quently happens that se and quando, though relating to the 
future time, have one of the verbs coming after in the present 
time, as our ly* and when have in English : 

Se ti sento favellire, io ti taglierb il I If 1 hear thee speak, I will cut thy 
collo. Mac. C. j throat. 

Se ta mi/at chiaro di quattro cose, io j //"thou ma/cesf me sure of four things, 
ti perdoner6. Sac. N. | I will pardon thee. 

N6 tomerb, se vincitornon <orwo. i Nor will I return, if I return not 

T AS. G. L. I conqueror. 

No, vi anderi quando torno. j No, she shall go thitlier when I return. 

GOL. C. I ^ 

Here is sento, fai, torno, torno, in the present time. They 
should be, according to the rule generally observed by the Ita- 
lians, sentiro , farai, tornero, tornero, in the future. 

230. As to the times of the subjunctive and conditional 
modes, it is somewhat difficult to fix any precise rules for them. 
In speaking, of the modes, I have endeavoured to explaia the 

p2 



31Q SYNTAX [Chap. 

different mannors of turning our signs may, might, should, 

^would, and were or wert, into Italian; and, in doing that, 

something was necessarily said about the time of these inodea. 

, We sec, in the conjugations, that there is a present time simple 

and a past time sinjplc in the subjunctr\'e mode, and also, a 

compound of the present and a compound of the past time. 

, Now, we must observe, that when tlie verb that governs the 

subjunctive is either in the present or in the future ; then, the 

present time of the subjunctive must ))e used ; as : 



lo desidtro che voi mi mandiate, 
lo desideierb che Toi mi mandiult. 



I deiire that you may send me. 

I shall desire that you mmy send n)0. 



Here the present of the subjunctive expresses, decidedly, a 
future time} and it does, in fact, express both future 3.nd 
present. 

lor.on so sc egli jja ricco, no, I I do not know whether be 6e rich, 

1 or not. 

Here it is Jn the present. The verb expressive of desire hi 
reference to the future, and the verb expressive of doubt has 
reference to the present. Again, there is the compound of the 
present, which refers to the past: 

lo non credo che 1' ahbia falto I I do not think that he has done it 
anc6ra, ' I yet. 

If the verb governing be in any time other than the present or 
the future, then the subjunctive must be in the past time, either 
simple or compound as the meaning may dictate ; as : 



lo temtva che cih avvenlsse, 
lo ho temuto che ci6 avtrnisse, 

lo temeva che cib fosse awenuto, 

lo aieia (einutocbe cio atventsse, 



I feared that that might happen. 
. I hare feared that that might 

happen, 
I feared that that might have 

happened. 
1 had feared that tliat might 

happen. ^ 



As to the conditional; this mode always expresses our should 
or would, and admits of as little explanation, as to its time, as 
do our verbs when accompanied by those signs. There is one 
simple form, and one compound, in this mode, just as there is 
Avith our verbs Avhen they are joined with should or would. 



XX.] Of VERBS. 517 

In speaking of the modes, I have said all that I deemed neces- 
sary about this. There is, indeed, no difficulty in it. 



Gli dissi die io verr6i, 

Gli dissi che io sar6i venuto, 



I told him that I should (or would) 

come. 
I told him th&il should (or would) 

have corns. 



So far it is pretty clear that the Italian verb, in both simple 
and compound form, has reference to something past, and, like 
our verb as employed with the should or ivould, seems to pro- 
mise something that was to come after a time now past. But, 
if we were to say, 

What would you do if he should 



come 



'i 



Che fardste yoi se cgli vtnisse ? J ^^""^ **««''^ Y"*^ '^^ '^ ^^ '^°"''* 

1 come ? ^ 

What should you do if he were to 

come? 

Here the conditional y*ares#e is expressed, in English, by either 
would do or should do ; and, the subjunctive venisse, by 
should come or weie to come. But here is no time in parti- 
cular supposed, either in the fareste or in the venisse, any 
more than there is in the English would do and should come, 
should do and should come, should do and ivere to come. 
There are, then, in fact, manners of using both of these modes, 
the subjunctive and the conditional, which imply an uncer- 
tainty as to any particular time at all, whether present, pastj 
or future. 

3c?. Of the Number and the Person. 

331. A verb cannot be used without having a noun or pro- 
noun, either expressed or understood, for its nominative, as it 
is called 3 that is, the verb, as expressing some act or some 
state of being or other, must always be understood as intended 
to express that some person or thing acts, or that some person 
or thing exists in some way or other. The verb must be in the 
same number and person as the noun or pronoun which stands 
for its nominative, and this agreement between the nominative 
and the verb grsimmarians call concord* There are two num- 



319 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



bers, called the singular and the plural; and there are three 
persons, called the 1st person, the 2d person, and the 3d 
person: , 



Singular. 



Plural. 



{ 
{ 



lit. /, 
2d. Thou, 
3d. Ury or ihe. 
1ft. We, 
2d. Youy 
3d. They. 



So far this matter is so simple, as relates to all languages, that 
it would be needless to enter into further explanation. It is 
necessary, however, to observe certain rules here, or we may 
commit great errors in putting what we would say into Italian. 

232. Observe, first, that the Italians do as we do in using 
the second person plural of the verb, instead of the second 
person singular. It has long been out of fashion for us to use 
such expressions as, thou hast, I speak to thee, and such-like. 
We, now-a-days, ssiy, you have^ I speak to ?/om, and so on, 
though we be addressing a single person only. The Italians do 
the same, saying, voi avcte, io parlo a voi, instead of, tu hai, 
io parlo a te. It must be observed, however, that, in familiar 
style, they address people with the thou and thee very com* 
monly; much more commonly than we do in any part of our 
country. In what is called elevated style, also, such as poetry, 
the Italians alwaj's use the singular, just as we do. The use of 
the plural instead of the singular, in common conversation, is 
intended merely as a mark of respect. 

233. Whenever two or more nouns or pronouns, whether they 
be both in the singular, or both in the plural number, or of dif- 
ferent numbers, come together as the nominatives of one verb, 
the verb, in Italian, must always be in the plural number; as : 



II cavillo e la vacca sono Del 

prato, 
I cavdlli e la vicca $ono nel 

prato, 
Tu ed io andrimo insieme, 
To e noi andremo insieme, 



The horse and the cow are in the 

meadow. 
The horses aad the cow are in 

the meadow. 
Thoa and I nill go together. 
Thoa and we will go together. 



Observe, here, that the first person is preferred to the second^ 
and the second to the third. We must, therefore, say, 



XX.] OF VERBS, 319 

Toi ed io siumo content!, I You and I are contented. 

Pietro e voi si6le renuti, j Peter and you are come j 

and not, voi ed io siiete, Pietro e voi sono. 

234. The Italians frequently use the verb in the second per- 
son singular along with the pronoun of the second person plural, 
when they are addressing a single individual, particularly in 
familiar or colloquial style ; and this occurs, generally speak- 
ing, in the past imperfect time of the indicative mode : as, 
ydi AMAVi, you loved, voi avevi, you had, instead of voi 
AMAVATE, voi AVEVATE. The Same occurs sometimes in 
the past time of the subjunctive, as in the following example, 
where vve see avessi instead of avtste : 

Se voi m' av6ssi parlatoa Paris;!, &c. I If you had spoken to me at Paris. ., 

Mac. C. I 

235. When the conjunction o, which represents both our or 
and our either^ comes between two nouns or pronouns ; then, 
in Italian, as in English, the verb is in the singular ; as : 

O I'avarizia o la prodigalitd rejna I Either avarice or prodigality reigns 
ne' ricchi, I amongst the rich. 

I 

But if there be several nouns or pronouns nominatives to the 
same verb, and one or more of them be in the-plural; then the 
verb must be in the plural ; as : 

II principe, o i suoi siidditi, sar^?ino i The rince, or his Subjects, wiii be 
temijti, I feared. 

236. When the conjunction n^, which represents both our 
nor and neither^ comes between two nouns or pronouns, no 
matter whether they be in the singular or plural, the verb must 
be in the plural ; as : " ^ 

N6 il pericolo nh il timor ibbero forza I Neithe» danger nor fear had power to 
amuorerlo, I move him. 

N6l'uno7ifcl'altrov'andarowo, j Neither the one nor the o^her ivent 

I there. 

But, if the act or the state of being to be described by the 
verb be such as can be performed or occupied by only one 
individual, then the verb must be in the singular, although 



(320 SYNTAX [Chap. 

several individuals be mentioned. As, if I were to speak of 
two persons, one of whom should be intended as the king of a 
country ; then, taking it for granted that but one king could 
be at a time, I should say, 

^i Carlo ni Enrico *ar<i re, I Neither Charles nor Henry will be 

I king. 

And not sar/'mno : because the state of being king could be 
occupied by only one of them. 

237. In speaking of the Syntax of Adjectives, I have noticed 
those words which are called nouns of multitude ^ or collective 
nouns. I mentioned, also, the words il piii, most; la piil 
2JartCy the most part ; la niar/gior parte, the greater part ; 
un buon numero, a good number; la met(}, the half; una 
parte, a part; una gran parte, a great part; ujia quantitd^ 
a quantity ; un torzo, a third ; ?/n quarto, a fourth, &c. ; 
these words are used with the verb following cither in the sin- 
gular or in the plural, as such words may be in our language, 
just according as they may be intended to express quantity 
without reference to number, or as they precede a noun in the 
plural. 

238. With the nouns of multitude, such as a multitude, the 
people, a crowd, the public, it is frequently optional with us 
to put the verb in the singular or the plural. The Italians 
always put the verb in the singular with these nouns; as: 

X,a mo//i<;'/dinp si/^-'ministra tli qual- • The multitude mude itself a tool of 
iinque dibegnassc, &c. Mac:. D. | wliomsoever designed. . . 

// popolo andb ad incontrarlijne uccise i The people went to meet them, killed 
alcuni, &c. Mub. A. | some of them. 

11 pdpolo miniito si levb in arme. | The common people arose in arms, 

Mac. S. I 

Qnivi Ov' c tnnt&yente afflitta, &c. l There where there are so many peo- 

Aur. O. F. I pie afflicted. 



Povera e nuda vai, filosofia, 
Uictlu turba al vil guadagno intesa. 

Pet. S. 



Poor and naked thou poest, philoso. 
phy, say the crowd intent on rile 
gain. 



There are, how- ever, examples to be found, in which the 
Italians, in these cases, put the verb in the plural. In the 



XX.] OF VERBS. ' 321' 

following one, there are the verb and the adjective in the plu- 
ral : erano ignoranti, instead of, era ignorante : 

Pot^te Tcdeve come il comune pSpolo i You may see how the common peopla 
6ranti ignoranti, G. Vil. S. | were ignorant. 

239. The preposition con, with, is sometimes used in such 
a way as to have, apparently, the same sense as the conjunc- 
tion e, and ; and, in such case, there being two nouns or 
pronouns used with the verb, the verb is frequently put in the 
plural; as: 

D6po che Elvira collo sposo fiiron I After Elvira with her hnshand nera 
parliti per I'Indie, &c. Soa. N. I gone to the Indies.. . 

La reina, con I'altre donne, a caroler riijThe queen,wi<A the other ladies, fte^ar* 
cominciArono. Boc. D. | to darice. 

Then, again, in other similar cases, the verb is in the singular ; 
as: 

Sa Emanuele, coi duesuoi fidi, non si i If Emmanuel, with two of his con- 
f6sse interpostoy i(,c. Soa. N. | fidants, A«d not interposed himself 

Ed ei con essi riman sepolto fra le I And he with them remains buried 
rovine. Soa. N. I amongst the ruins. 

We express ourselves in both these ways, like the Italians : she 
with her husband were gone, or, she with her husband was 
gone. The question here is, whether the first noun or pro- 
noun be or be not exclusively the nominative of the verb. 
SiGNOR BiA&iOLi defends the putting of the verb and the 
adjective in the plural, in such cases ; and Signor Barberi 
condemns it. According to the opinion of the latter, the 
furon partUi and the comincidrono, in the above examples, 
should have been era partita and comincio • and I think 
SiGNOR Barberi is right. 

240. When one of the relative pronouns, che or quale, comes 
between two nominatives, the latter nominative being in the 
plural number, and the former in the singular, the verb follow- 
ing is sometimes put in the singular, though its proper nomi- 
native is the nominative that is in the plural ; as : 



Cesare era uno di quelli che voUva 
pervenire al principato di Roma. 

Mac. P. 

p5 



Cesar was one ot those who wished to 
arrive at the dominion of Rome, 



322 SYNTAX [Chap. 

This is certainly bad grammar. It should have been, uno 
di QUELLi che volevano pervenire ; because, the relative 
che here relates to quclli and not to uno. Uno is in the 
singular, and is the nominative of the verb essere • and quelli 
is in the plural, and is the nominative of the verb voUre. 

241. The main thing to be observed as relates to Persoiij 
is, a manner which the Italians have of using the third "person 
instead of the second. We, for the sake of politeness, have 
substituted our you for our thouj in addressing a sin^^le in- 
dividual. The Italians and the French have done the same ; 
the former having substituted voi for <m, and the latter vous for tu. 
But, in the language of the Italians, as in that of the Spaniards, 
a still further sacrifice of ^ammar to politeness has been 
made. The Italians, in addressing persons to whom they wish 
to show particular respect, apply to them the title of Signoria. 
This is a word of general use, and means the same as our lord-- 
ship, ladyship, worship, or something of that sort, and is, as 
generally employed, merely intended as an acknowledgment 
of the respectability or gentility of the person addressed. The 
Italians use the possessive pronoun with this word, saying, la 
vostra Signoria, as we do in saying your lordship, your lady^ 
ship, your worship. This title, joined along with the pro- 
Doun, is abbreviated to Vosignoria, or Vossignoria ; and in 
writing, the two letters V. S. are often employed to represent 
the vostra and the signor'ia. In the plural, it becomes Le iig- 
norie loro, or le loro signorie, that is, their lordships, their 
worships, &c. Thus, the Italians say, 

V 

Come sta vosignoria? | How is your worship ? 

Come stanno le signorie loro ? j How are your worships ? 

That is, how are you, Sir, Madam, or Missi how are you, 
gentlemen, or ladies'^. The titles of Signore, Sir or Mr., and 
Signora, Madam or Mistress, are frequently used in the plural, 
in place of the Signorie, and they are preceded by the pronoun 
loro OT lor: lor Signori, you (meaning gentlemen); lor Sig- 
wore, you (meaning ladies). The Signoria is a noun of the 
feminine gender ; and in order to avoid the use of so long a 



XX.] OP VERBS. 323 

word, or the repetition of it, the Italians bring in the personal pro- 
noun of the feminine gender, and say, in addressing a person : 



Spero che ella sta bene, 
Ho parlato di lej, 
Le parlero domani, 
La vedo adosso, 



I hope that you are well. 
I have spoken of you, 
[ will speak to you to-morrow. 
I see you now. 



That is, literally, I hope she is well, I have spoken of Aer, I 
will speak to Aerv to-morrow, I see her now. And this too, 
though the person spoken to be a man. The reason for era- 
ploying the pronoun of the feminine gender is, that it is not voif 
you, but the title vosignoriaj that is understood : 

Spero che vosignorla sta bene. 
Ho parlato di vosignoria. 
Parlero a vosignoria donoani. 
Vedo vosignoria adesso. 

In such cases as these, then, the verb agrees with the pro- 
noun, the pronoun being in the third person, though the person 
addressed is in the second person. Observe the following ex- 
amples : 



La casa ov' ella nhitciva mi par tut- 
tavia abildta da lei mtdesima. 
J Ben. L. 



The house where you dwelled ap- 
pears to me always inhabited by 
yourstlf. 



lo ne la ringrazio infinitamente. i I thank you for it very much. 

Ben. L. I 

Se cio fosse vero, O quanta invidia le I If that were true, O how much envy 
porterei! Ben. L. I 1 should bear j/ott.' . 

That is, literally translated, where she dwelled ^ by herself, I 
thank Aer, I should bear her envy, because, what is meaned 
here is, la casa ove vosignoria abitdva-, and so on in the other 
examples. 

242. It sometimes occurs, that, in employing the relative fol- 
lowing two nominatives, the verb is made to agree with the first, 
when it should agree with the second nominative ; as^ in these 
examples : 

lo son colui che tenni ambo le chiave i / am Ac who held both the keys of the 
Del cor di Federigo. i heart oLFredeiick. 

Dan. In. I 

Id son reram^nte coliii che queli I Jam really A e who hilled that maq 
uomo uccisi stamane. Boc. D. I this morning. 



324 SYNTAX [Chap. 

8i6t«> mi qufWn rfofina cbe %V\ dovitt i Are you that woman who ought to 
venire a pailjre ? J3of, D. [ come to speak to him? 

In the two first examples, the verbs t€7ii2i and iiccisi are in the 
first person, when tliey should be in the third ; and, in the 
latter example, the verb dovtte is in the second person, when 
it should be in the third. These examples are, as to person^ 
just similar to what the one given in Paragraph 240 is as to 
number. These instances of bad grammar arise when, as is the 
case in the above examples, there is only one person intended to 
be spoken of, though there be two nominatives in the sentence. 
It should have been, io son colui che tenner io son veramente 
colui che uccisey siete voi quella donna che deve. It is when 
the verb cssere^ to be, is used between two nominatives, as we see 
it in the above examples, that this error is apt to be committed. 
It is clear that the io and the voi are, here, nominatives of the 
verb esserey to be, and that the colui and the quella donna are 
the nominatives of the verbs tenere, to hold, uccidere, to kill, and 
doverCy to owe. The relative che does not relate to the io and 
the voiy but to the colui and the quella donna : consequently, 
it should have been tenne, uccisey deve. 

4th. Of the Participle, 

243. There are, belonging to each verb in our language, two 
participles as they are called. The participle, which is the 
same sort of word, or very nearly so, in all languages, is thus 
called, because it partakes of the different natures of several 
parts of speech. It is, in its origin, a part of the verb ; but, as 
employed in some cases, it has an adjective sense, and, at other 
times, it is used as a 7ioun. In order to distinguish the one par- 
ticiple from the other, the one is called the active participle, 
and the other the passive participle. Thus, the word loving 
is said to be the active participle of our verb to love, and the 
word loved is said to be the passive participle of the same verb. 
Some grammarians give the active participle the name of par- 
ticiple present, and the passive participle that of participle 
past. We will first see how the Italians express the sense of 
our active participle, and, aftenvards, we will go to the passive 
participle. 



XX.] OP VERBS. 325 

244. We use our active participle in three ways ; first, as a 
part of the verb, to describe the act or the state of being of a 
person or thing; second, as an adjective^ to characterise a 
person or thing in some way ; third, as a noun. For example : 

1. Heisalwaysiaw^Ai«^. 

2. He has a laughing face. 

3. Laughing indicates mirth. 

Thus it is with our participle, which ends always in ing. 
Now, if we look back at the conjugations of verbs (page 80), 
we shall see that the Italians have tivo participles which are 
called a<:tive ; one ending in ndo, and another ending in nte. 
Observe, then, that, in Italian, the 1st of the above examples 
would be translated with the participle in ndo, the 2d by the 
participle in nte, and the 3d by the infinitive of the verb along 
with the definite article ; thus : 

1. Stasemprerirfe'ndo. 

2. Ha un viso ridente. 

3. Jl rtdere indica TaUegria. 

It is a rule, that the first of these manners, iu Italian, must not 
be employed when, in English, there would be a preposition 
before the participle. In such case, the Italians would use the 
injinitive of the verb after the preposition ; as : 



oflaughingr, 


di ridere. 


to laughing, 


a ridere. 


from laughing, 


da ridere. 


by laughing, 


da ridere. 


in laughing, 


in ridere. 


•with laughing, 


C071 ridere. 


for laughing, 


per ridere. 


without laughing, 


senza ridtre 



The only exception to this rule is, that the preposition in is 
sometimes used along with the participle ending in ndo ; as : 

Tremo in />fnsun(fo, chel' amor tili^Ie i I tremble in tAinArin^ that filial love 
ibbia potiito condiirti, &c. j may haye led thee .... 

SoA. N. I 

Egli inparUndo quasi tutto avcaseco I He in depmrting had carried with him 
portato. SoA. I^. I almost all. 

Dove in passdndo le vcatigia ei pose, I Where in pdssin he left bis tracks. 



;ia ei pose. I 
Tas. G. L. I 



326 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Here we see in pens^ndOj in partcndOj in passundo ; instead 
of in pens6rey in part'ire^ in passive, which latter manner is 
much more agreeable with the Italian language; and, thus, in 
the following examples, we see in vedcre, in pensAre^ aspet- 
tdrBy antivedcre, in domare^ in amdr, in seyuiry in lasciur : 



Inrtnita fu 1' allegr^zza che srntii in 
vedtre, &c. Ben. L. 

Se i mispri mortal! fogsf r prad^nti 
/n J/fnsarr, aspetture, antivedire 
I vari casi, ice. Boj. O. I. 

Prima si vnlse dell' armi loro in do- 
mare i p6poli conviciai. Maci I). 

Nft in Ofliar, nd in segulr la mia donna. 

Ari. O. F. 

Ella non sente pena in lasciurml. 

GoL. C. 



Infinite was the joy that I felt in tet- 
in§ . . . 

If miserable mortals were prudent, in 
constdering, anticipating, fortttt- 
ing, the various accidents .... 

First he availed himself of their arras 
in subduing the neighbouring people. 

Ts'either in loving, nor in following 

my mistress. 

She does not feel paia in leaving 
me. 



In using the participle ending in ing, we often l^ve to be un- 
derstood one or other of the prepositions in and % ; as : using 
hi}n well, you will gain his good will. This is constantly the 
case in Italian also ; as in the following examples ; 



Non la perderii dandola a te. 

Boc. D. 

Vedesi molte Yolte come la umilti non 
solamtnte non giova, ma nu6ce, 
raassimam^nte usdndola con gli 
u6mini insolenti. Mac. D. 

Yincendo la frivola quistione, si perde 
ass^i spesso il caro amico. 

D. Cas. G. 



J shall not lose her in giving her to 
thee. 

It is many times seen that humility 
not only profits not, but injures, par- 
ticularly by using it with insolent 
men. 

In getting the better of the frivq^ns 
question, we very often lose the 
valued friend. 



There is nothing more that requires particular notice as respects 
the participle ending in ndo ; excepting that, whenever we, in 
English, could use the indicative or subjunctive mode, along 
with our that, who, or which, instead of expressing our mean- 
ing with the participle in i?ig, in all such cases, the Italians 
prefer that manner which resembles the former of these two 
manners of ours ; as : 



I see a maa running, 

or, 
I see a maa nho runs. 



1 



Vedo an uomo che ccrre. 



XX.] OP VERBS. . 327 

I hear a person speaking, •% 

or, ? Odo nna persona cAtf/>arifl. 

I hear a person that speaks, * 



The dog barking is mine, 

or, |> II cane che abbaja k mio. 

The dog which barks is mine. 



} " 



245. And, observe, that the infinitive is almost always used 
instead of the participle ending in ndo, after such verbs as 
signify the different manners of "perception, such as udire, 
to hear; vedere, to see; sentire, to feel; unless the che, or 
some other relative pronoun, be, as in the above examples, 
employed; as: 

Ed ecco a se venir vede un battello. I And behold he sees a boat coming to 

Ari. O. F. I him. 

246. The active participle frequently stands before the noun 
which is the nominative of the verb ; as : 

Essendo il re andito alia ciccia, i The king being gone to the chase. 

Combattcndo valorosamente i soldati, I The soldiers^^'A/inj' bravely. 

247. There has been some dispute amongst grammarians as 
to the name which should be given to the participle ending in 
nte. In the following examples, we see it employed as an active 
participle: 



Or non e qaesta terra qudsi tina 
grande nave portante u6mini ? &c. 

G. ViL. S. 

Ma che dirdi tu ancora delle sue forze 
stendentisi negli animal i iriazio- 
nali ? Boc. F. 



Now is not this earth like a great ship 
carrying men ? 

But what wilt thou say of its powers 
extending themselves to irrational 
animals ? 



This makes it decidedly an active participle. But it is not 
now-a-days customary to employ this part of speech in this 
way. The Italians would say, una grande nave che porta 
uomini; sue forze stendcndosi. The words of this kind, 
however, ending in nte, are all derived immediately from the 
verb, and they serve to express the sense of our participle end- 
ing in ing, when used as an adjective ; and, also, as nouns, to 
express the same sense as our nouns, which end in er and have 
their origin in the verb. For example : 



328 





SYNTAX 


A Urinri man, 




Un u6ino vivente, 


or, 




or, 


A man who live$. 




Un u6mocherirf. 


A laughing face, 




Un Tiso ridente, 


or. 




or. 


A face tliat laughs, 




Vn vise che ride. 


A /ailing hou»e, 




Unacasa cadinte. 


or, 




or, 


A house that/fl//j, 




Una casa che cade 


A giver, 




Un dante. 


or, 




or. 


One wlio gives. 




Uno che dd,. 


A receiver, 




Un ricevcnte, 


or, 




or, 
Uno che ricive. 


One who receives. 




A believer. 




Un credcnte. 


or, 




or, 


One who believes, 




Uno che crede. 


A lover, 




Un amdnte. 


or, 




or. 


One who loves, 




Uno che ama. 


A learner. 




Un imparunte, 


or, 




or, 


One who learns, 




Uno che impdra. 



[Chap. 



I need only observe, further, as relates to this participle as it is 
called, ending in ntCj that it must always agree in number with 
the person or thing to which it may relate, whether it be used 
as participle, adjective, or noun ; as : 



II Tiso ridente, 
I visi ridenti, 
Un amante. 
Due amanti. 



The laughing face. 
The laughing faces. 
A lover. 
Two lovers. 



248. Having considered the two participles; the one ending 
in ndo, the other in Jite ; the first of which is always used in a 
verbal capacity, and the second in the capacities of both adjeC' 
tive 2itid noun, but very seldom in the way of veri ; we next 
come to the third manner in which our participle in ing may be 
expressed in Italian, that is, as we see it in the last of the three 
examples numbered, by making use of the ivjinitive mode of 
the verb and the definite article. Observe, then, that in all 
cases where we use the participle ending in ing as a noun, the 
Italians use the infimtive and the article. So, when we say, 



XX.] 



OF V£RBS« 



329 



laughing indicates mirth, reading is useful, th^ Italians say, 
the to laugh indicates mirth, the to read is useful: 



Laughing indicates. mirth, 
Reading is useful, 
Writing will not be difficult to yon, 
Lying is an abominable crime, 
Eating too much injures the health, 



II ridere indica 1' allegria. 

II Icggere d utile. 

Lo scrivere non vi sari difficile. 

II mentire k un crimine abbomin^vole. 

// man(;iure sovercbio nuoce alia salute. 



Thus it must always be, when our participle in ing^ used as a 
noun, represents the act of doing something or the state of 
being in some way. But the Italians have, in many cases, a 
peculiar sort of noun, which has its origin in the verb, and 
which they employ, with the definite article, where our parti- 
ciple would be used, to express the business, occupation, or 
habit of doing something, or of being in some way ; as; 



V 



Reading is useful, 



Lying js abominable, 



{ 



Jl Icggere ^ utile, 

or, 
La lettura i iitile. 

Jl mentire h abbominevole, 
or 



t La menzogna i abbominevolc. 



Here, where the infinitives are used, it is meaned the act of 
reading, the act of lying ; and, where the nouns are used, it is 
meaned the occupation or pursuit of reading ^ the habit of 
lying. In some cases, we have this choice of expression in 
common with the Italians; as: ^ 



Laughing indicates mirth, 

or, 
Laughter indicates mirth, 



11 ridere iadica 1' allegria, 
or, 
riso indica 1' allegria. 



249. The article, used before the infinitive of a verb, must 
always be one or other of the masculine articles il and lo : IL 
Itggere, reading ; lo scrivere, writing. As to when il should 
be used and when lo, we have only to observe the rules given 
under Paragraph 29, where the agreement between articles 
and nouns is explained. 

250. The two languages are frequently just alike, in their 
requiring or not requiring the article; in Enghsh, before the 
participle active, and, in Italian, before the infinitive mode ; 
as: 



330 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



The riihif of the san, 
The Mfttinp of llic snn, 
The comitip of the cTcninfif, 



Lo tipnntLr del sole. 
// tramontar del sole, 
II venir delta sera. 



Observe, again, the following example, in which, in both lan- 
guages, the article is used in the one instance and omitted in 
the other : 



La masserizia sti^ nr/bene adoperare 
le cose oon meno che in conser- 
varte. Pan. (i. F. 



Economy consists in the well t 
ployiuij of things not less than 
pteserciiif them. 



em- 
m 



251. The use of the infinitive as a noun with the article, is 
an idiom of such constant use in Italian, and one that gives at 
once so much strength and elegance to that language, that I 
think it not unnecessary to take some further notice of it. We 
have seen, in the etymology of nouns, at Paragraph 29, how 
the article may be joined along with the prepositions di, a, da^ 
in, coji, per, su, when standing before nouns. It is just the 
same, then, with the infinitive, when used as a noun, as with 
other nouns. I will here give some examples, in which we 
shall see the infinitive always answering to our participle 
ending in ing, sometimes being preceded by the article alone, 
and sometimes with the article joined along with a prepo- 
sition : 



SefucolpatHascidr<i,ecco rammendo. 

Gi)A. P. F. 

Ciasciino ama la vittoria, e lo csser 
Tinto 6dia. D. Ca5. G. 

// veder molti pubbtici evenimenti, &c. 

Ben. L. 

II p6g!jio cbe possa aspettare un prin- 
cipe dal popolo nemico, e V cistr 
abbandondto da Itii. Mac. P. 

Perchi avendo, nell' ingresso del suo 
principito, differito V andare a 
Roma, &c. Mac. "*. 

L' antorita del comandare con la for- 
ma delV ubbidire, &c. Ben. L. 

Era tumultuario e confiiso il modo 
del consulldre. Dav. S. 

AlVintindere la sciagura ella fu vi- 
yam^ute commossa. Soa. N. 



If the leavirrf thee was a fault, here 
is the atonement. 

Every one loves Tictory, and hates 
the btiuy ranquished. 

The seeing many public erents. 



The worst that a prince can expect 
from a popular enemy, U the being 
abandoned by him. 

Becaas«t having, in the beginniag of 
his reigo, deferred the going to 
Rome, &c. 

The authority of commanding with 
the form of obeying. 

The manner of consulting vr&s tu- 
multuous and confused. 

At hearing the disaster she was much 
troubled. 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



331 



lo rider6 al vedire la lor rdbbia. 

SoA. N. 

Lontino dalV aver piik peQsi^ro, &c. 

SoA.N. 



un sasso 



Che a\cvano 1' onde col picchiur fre- 
Cavo. [quente 

Ari. O.F. 

Neljiammefjgidr del fulg6r santo, &c. 

Dan. Par. 



I shall laugh at seeing their rage. 

Ten from having any further thought 

A rock which the wares had hollowed 
out with frequent striking. 



In the flaming of the holy thunder- 
bolt, . . . 



By these examples, it will be seen that the Italians use the 
article in cases where we could not. Besides the use of the 
infinitive with the definitive article alone, or that article when 
joined to a preposition, the Italians use it also with the inde- 
Jinite article, and also with the possessive pronoun, just as we 
do our participle ending in ing ; as : 



Cib non e altro che un piglidr cogni- 
zi6ue di cose mute. Ben. L. 

Un mormordr di flume chescende, &c. 

Pbt. C. 

Ma il suo scherzar h pi6no 

Di peiiglio, &c. Tas. A. 



Ma per dirti la cagi6ne 
Delmio venir a te, &c. 



GuA. P. F. 



di che raerito son' io, 



Che antiveggian profeti il venir mio? 

Ari. O.F. 

Arendo gid compiiito la bella ninfa il 
suo cantdre, kc. Boc. A.~ 



That is no other than a taking notice 
of inanimate things. 

A murmuring of a river which de- 
scends . . .M 

But his playing is full of danger. 



But to tell thee the reason of my 
coming to thee . . . 

Of what merit am I, that prophets 
foresee my coming ? 

The fair nymph having already finish- 
ed Aer sin^in^r. 



In using the demonstrative pronouns, also, we must translate 
our participle by the Italian infinitive ; as : this speaking, 
QUESTo j)ar/tfre ; that murmuring, quel mormordr e ; and so 
on. In addition to the foregoing, I will give three more 
examples : 



Virtil contr' al fur6re 
Prendera 1 ' drme, e fia ii combatter corto . 

Pet. S. 

Non era I' andiir suo cosa mortale. 

Pet. S. 



Al fin parleri il mio morlre. 



GoAtP.F. 



Virtue agaiwstrage will take nparms, 
and the fight will be short. 

Her step was something more thau 
mortal. 

A.t last my death will speak. ^^ 



332 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



These examples uill serve to show to what an extent the 
Italians use the infinitive as a noun. To translate these lite- 
rally, they would be: the to Jiyht will be short ; her to go 
was not a mortal thing ; mij to die will speak. 

252. The passive PARTicirLE serves, in Italian, as it 
does in our language, both as a part of the verb and as an 
adjective. For example : 



The man whom 1 Imvr deceived, 

This is the deceived raan, 

The Pope has excommunicated 

Ihc heretic, 
He was an e.rcommuiiicated heretic, 



1/ n(')mo che ho inyannato. 
Qiiesto d I' u6mo inr/antiato. 
II Papa hn tcomunidto I'erittco. 

Era un eretico $comunicalo. 



The first inganndto and the first scomunicato are here em- 
ployed as a part of the verb ; and the second ingann/ito and 
the second scomunicdto have the capacity of adjectives. In 
the first instance, the participles, along with the auxiliary verb 
to have, describe the acts of deceiving and eicommunicating y 
* of which acts the man and the heretic are the sufferers or 
patients; and, inithe second instance, they describe, not any 
acts, but the states of being deceived and being excommuni- 
cated, which states of being are mentioned as circumstances 
descriptive of, or characterizing, the man and the heretic. 
It is easy to perceive that there is passiveness, the suffering 
of something, or the having suffered it, understood in both 
cases ; and it is quite clear that the inganndto and the scomu- 
nicato are, in both cases, immediately derived from the verbs 
inganndre and scomunicdre, just as the deceived and the 
excommunicated D.re derived from our verbs to deceive and to 
excommunicate. So far the matter is the same thing in the 
one language as it is in the other. But the passive participle 
is, in Italian, sometimes made to agree in gender and num- 
ber with the noun, just as we have seen that adjectives are 
made to agree with the noun. Sometimes the participle must 
agree, and, at other times, it need not agree, with the noun, 
in gender and number; and, to show when this agreement 
is required, and when it is not required, is the object of 
what will here be said respecting the passive participle. 
There are, however, two Italian idioms as respects the use of 



XX.] OF VERBS, 333 

the passive participle, in which there is a differing from our 
language, and that, too, quite independently of any agreement 
between the participle and the noun. And these two idioms I 
must here point out. 

253. The first is this : that the Italians frequently use the 
passive participle alone, in cases Avhere we should be obliged to 
employ along with it the active participle of one or other of the 
auxiliary verbs; that is, the participle having or the participle 
being ; for example : 



Having said this, he began to write, 

The \v«r being finished^ the soldiers 
returned, 



Detto qaesto, comincib a scriVere. 
Finita la gaerra, i solddti ritorndrono. 



That is, to translate the Italian literally : said this, he began 
to write ; finished the war, the soldiers returned. This is a 
thing that we can very seldom do in our language. The Ita- 
lians have here a great advantage over us; for they can, jiist 
as they please, either employ both the active and the passive 
participle together in such cases, or, as in the above examples, 
the passive participle alone: avendo detto questo, having 
said this, or, detto (^wes^a, said this ; essendo finita la 
guerra, the war being finished^ or, einita la guerra, finished 
the war. We read in Milton's Paradise Lost: " this said^ 
he formed thee, OAdam"; that is, having said this. But, 
it is seldom that our language admits of such expressions. I 
will give a few more examples, in which the avendo or essendo 
is omitted : 

Affncciatosi ad tina finestra il duca i The Duke of Argos, having presented 
d'Argos, promise lovo, &c. Mur. A. \ himself at the window, told them. . . 

Diquesto ai?ii/o avviso, il reFrisone,&c. I King Frisone having had adyice of 

Ari. O. F. I this. 

Intesa 1* ambasciita, resto alquanto I Having heard the message, he re- 
sospeso. GiA, S. I mained somewhat irresolute. 

E accompagmito lui insino alia porta I And having accompanied him as far 
del mio pal agio, &c. Boc. F. I as the door of my pulace . . . 



I Latini intcso questo, ed avendo 
eosci^Qza di moltecose, &c. 

Mac. D. 

AUontandti in questa mani^ra dalla 
corte il Coatest^bile ed il Duca di 
Guisa, &c. Dav.S. 



The Latins having heard this, and 
having knowledge of many things. . 

The Constable and the Duke of Guise 
bting^ in this maosei' removed from 
the court, » . , 



334 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Again, the Italians use the passive participle before the word 
chcy that; the die, in such case, having the meaning of our 
wheriy after, or as soon as. For example : 



Inlfto (he n' «bbc il motivo, ei gli 
parTC »i strano, &c, Soa. N. 

Conrhiiito cA' ebbe qaesto nel pensi^ro, 
No»« arme ritrovb, &c. Am. O. F. 

Doma che fu la potcnza de' ■6bili, e 
Jinita che la la gucrra con 1' Ar- 
civcscdvo, &c. Dav. S. 

Pemenuto che fu il re ai confioi della 

Spapna, e consegnalo ch' ihhe ai 

deputati la regina Isabella, &c. 

Dav. S. 



When he had heard the motive, it 
appeared to him so strange, . . . 

A* soon as he had settled this in his 
mind, he found new arms, . . . 

When the power of the nobles nas 
overcome, and uheit the war with 
the ArchbiMiop nasjinished, . . . 

After the king nas arrived at the 
confines of Spain, and after he had 
entrusted the queen Isabella to the 
deputies . . . 



That is, literally : heard that he had, concluded that he had, 
overcome that was the power, finished that was the war, 
arrived that was the king, entrusted that he had. Instead of 
this manner of expression, the sense might have been expressed, 
in Italian just as in English, by using the active participles of 
the verbs avtre, to have, and essere, to be ; that is, by saying, 
avindo intcso, having heard, avcndo cochiuso, having con- 
cluded, essendo doma, being overcome, essendo Jinito , being 
finished, essendo pervenuto, being arrived, avendo consegnato, 
having consigned. 

254. The other idiom that I have to mention is, the use of 
the infinitive of a verb actively, where we should use it pas- 
sively ; that is, the Italians say, for example, to deceive, 
where we should say, to be deceived. This, however, occurs. 
with the verb only when it comes after certain other verbs, 
which are very few in number; namely, the verbs ^are, to 
make or cause ; lascidre, to let or allow ; vedtre, to see ; udire, 
to hear; sentire, to feel or hear; and intcndere, to hear. 
Examples : 



Fatevi pagare, 

Mi lascio ingannure, 

Si vede privdrey 

Vi ho ndito chiamare, 

Mi sento/erfre, 

L' hointeso nominhre, 



Catise yourself to be paid. 
I allow myself /o be deceived. 
He sees himself deprived. 
1 have heard yon called. 
I feel myself nouncfed. 
I have beard him named. 



That is, to take the Italian literally, cause yourself to pay, 1 



XX.] OF VERBS. 335 

allow myself to deceive^ he sees himself to deprive, I have 
heard you to call, I feel myself to wound, I have heard him to 
navie ; and, in this sense such phrases may be taken, if it be so 
meaned. But we must observe, that they may have a very 
dififerent meaning ; a meaning which it is my object here to 
point out. The idiom is to be explained in this way : we say, 
cause yourself to be paid, and the Italians, to express the same 
idea, say, cause yourself to pay ; but, then, they always ex- 
press, or leave to be understood, the sense of some person or 
thing ; and their cause yourself to pay, means, cause 
SOMEBODY or SOMETHING TO PAY you. With the other 
examples it is just the same : / allow some person or thing to 
DECEIVE me, he sees some person or thing to deprive him, 
I have heard some person or thing name you, I feel some 
person or thing wound me, I have heard some person or 
thing NAME him. Observe, that, when the infinitive is used 
in this sense, after /are, lascidre, vedere, udire, sentire, and 
intendere, the object of these verbs is the infinitive coming 
after, and not the person or thing spoken of. When the Ita- 
lians S2iy, fdtevi pagdre, meaning, cause yourself to be paid, 
the meaning is, literally, cause to you or to yourself to pay ; 
that is, cause to yourself the act of paying, the act being done 
to you, or to yourself, and by some other person or thing. 
Again : Mi lascio iriganndre, means, in one case, I allow to 
myself \hQ act of deceiving, the act being done by me to some 
one else, and may mean, in the other, I allow to myself, or to 
me, the act of deceiving, the act being done by some other 
person or thing to me. The following are examples of this 
idiom. In all these examples we see the infinitive used after 
the verbs fare, lascidre, vedere, udire, sentire, and inten^ 
dere, upon the principle above explained. 

Questi /ece /are la chiesa di Santo I This man caused <o 6c marfc the church 
Dionisio in Francia. G.ViL. S. 1 of Saint Dionysius in France. 



La niem6ria delle vitt6rie lo faciva 
amdre da molti^ e temcr da quelli 
che &c. Mac. S. 



The memory of his vic^tories made 
him loved by many, and feared by 
those... 



Egli accettb il papdto con moUa alle- { He accepted the papacy with much 
£rezza, facendosi nomindre Cle- I joy, causi7ig himself to be ntuntd 
meme Quinto. f lO. N. * Clemeat the Fifth. 



336 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Ritp6*F, fmtfh miturare, • se non t 
cofi, &c. Sac. N. 

Anirndb molto lo Btito di Roma, r feet 
edificare trmpli, tec. G. Vii,. St. 

E tutto »uo patriin6nio /ere vcnderr. 

G. ViL. S, 

II nome di tant« bellicAse nnzi^ne 
comincib a /ursi •trepitosatneiite 
xidire. Uav. S. 

Dal re pre^ito fa di dire il nnine, 
O di lasciuni al men veder sropcrto. 

Ari. O.F. 

Liiiclati /irrfxadcrr, fig1ia6la mia. 

Mac. C. 

Se non si fu^se Unciato ingannare dft 
Cesare B6r5ia, &c. Mac. P. 

Coin! che ini^anna trover^ seropre chi 
si lascierd ingannare. 

Mac. p. 

lo cbe s/oridr cosi mi t\ggio,8cc. 

Ari. O. F. 

Qaelll cittadini che si viggono sprex- 
xure, &c. Mac. D. 

1 Lncchtsi, vrdendosi strfgnere, ri- 
C(')r9cro al Duca. 

Mac. S. 

Per non udlr Rin^ldo nomindre. 

Ari. O.F. 



par61e ingiari6se 



S' 6don per tutto usar da quelle genti. 

Mag. R. 

Si aente chiamur da una fincstra. 

ahi. o. r. 

La tradita datna incomincib a sentlrti 
ilrazidre da do)6ri acutiisimi. 

SoA. N. 

Si sentl piingert dal desid^rio della 
gl6ria. Soa. N. 



In cento b6ccbe infest 
Delia patria ckiamdrti 
Padre, itc. 



Mbt. O. 



He replied, eaiii* it to he measured, 
and if it is not so.. 

He amended much the utate of Rome, 
and caused temples to he builded. 

And all his patrimony he caused to be 
told. 

The renown of 80 many warlike na- 
tions began lo make itself loudly 
heard. 

He was entreated by the king to tell 
bis name, or at all erents to allow 
himself (u be seen ancoTered. 

Allow thyself to he persuaded, my 
daughter. 

If he had not at'owed himself to be 
deceived by Cesar Borgia. 

He who deceives will always find 
some one who will allow himself 
to be deceived. 

I who see myself thus constrained. 



Those citizens who see themselrea 
sliylittd. 

The people of Lucco, seeing them* 
selves pressed, Lad recourse to the 
Duke. 

In order not to hear Rinaldo named. 



Abusive words are heard every«wher« 
used by those people. 

He hears himself called from a win- 
dow. 

The betrayed lady began to feel 
herself tormented by moA acute 
pains. 

He felt himself urged by the desire of 
glory. 

In a hundred months I heard thee 
called father of thy country. 



There are some instances, io our own language, in which i 
the infinitive may be employed instead of the participle. AVe 



XX.1 



or VERBS. 



337 



say, for example, with the verb to hear : I have heard tell of 
such a thing; I have heard say of him, instead of, I have 
heard such a thing told of, I have heard it said of him. 
Thus, with the verb udtre to hear, we see the two languages 
perfectly agreeing in the following example, wherein, in the 
English, we may say either heard speak or heard spoken. 



Vdi ra^tonur* deir Abate di Clij[ni. 

Boc. D. 



He heard speak of the Abbot of 
Cluny. 



255. We have now to see when the passive participle is made 
to agree with the noun, and when not. The termination of the 
passive participle is, in its original form, that of o ; but, in order 
to agree with the noun in gender and number, it is subject to 
all the varieties of ending that an adjective ending in o would 
be subject to ; that is, the original ending in o may be changed 
to a, 2, or e. As : , 



Un uorao scomunicdto, 
JJna donna scomujticuta, 
Gli uoraini scomunicdti, 
Le doniie scomunicdte, 



An excommunicated man. 
An excommunicated woman. 
The excommunicated men. 
The excommunicated women. 



Here we see the participle used in the mere capacity of 
adjective, and, being so used, we see that it is liable to 
change its ending, to agree with the noun in gender and in 
number, in just the same way that any other adjective would 
be. Let it be observed, that the passive participle must 
always have along with it, either expressed or understood, .^ome 
part of one or other of the auxiliary verbs avere, to have, or 
essere, to be. In the above example, the un uomo scomuni- 
cdto, means, un uomo che e stato scomunicato, a man who 
HAS BEEN excommunicated, &c. It depends, in a great 
measure, upon the using of the one or of the other of these 
verbs, whether the participle is to agree with the noun or not. 
We see, that the participle must always agree, in gender and 
number, with the noun, whenever it is used, as in the above 
examples, merely as an adjective. In addition, then, to that 
rule, observe the following rules. 

First. The participle changes its form, when it is used 
with tssere, when the verb to which it belongs is a neuter 



33S 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



rerb; or ^hen it is a passive verb, whether reflective or 
othen^isc ; as : 



h'f uter Ve 



V 1 



L'uomo d venuto, 
li luimini x(ino trnufi, 
a donna ^ rrnufa, 

Le donne sono v^nuff, 



FaisiTe Verb 



L'aomo ^ stimuto, 

{Gli uomini sono stim^ti, 
La donna ^sdmafa, 
Le donne sono stimdtr, 

L'aomo si ^ lodato, 

Gli uumini si sono loddti, 



ReflecHTeVerbX l^a donna si i loddta, 

Le donne si sono lodute, 



Tlie man is r om?. f 
Tlie men are come. 
The woman is rofH«. 
The women are come. 

The man is enteemed. 
The men are esteemed. 
The wnnionis esteemed. 
The women are e%tetmei\ 

The man has praised himseir. 

The men have praised them- 
selves. 

The woman haspraue'd her- 
self. 

The women have praised 
themselves. 



Here are different sorts of verbs used : neuter, 'passive, and 
rejiective. See these Eorts distinguished in Paragraphs 258, 
259, and 2G1. Now, the above rule is invariable, as far as re- 
lates to the neuter verb and the passive verb when net reflective. 
But, when the verb is reflective, as in the above examples of 
lodare, there are cases in which the participle may be un- 
changeable in its termination. Zotti gives us these examples: 



Qaesta donna si * proposta per mo- 
dello a' su6i figli, 

Questa donna si ^ proposto di mari- 
tursi, 



1 



This lady has proposed herself as a 
model to her children. 

This lady has proptsed to herself to 
marry. 



Translate the examples literally, and they will be, this lady 
IS PROPOSED HERSELF as a model to her children, this lady 
IS PROPOSED TO HERSELF to marry. The distinction here 
to be made is a singular nicety in the Italian language. If we 
observe these well, we see that, in the first example, the verb 
to propose has no other end or object than the lady herself; 
and here the si means simply herself: the lady has proposed 
herself as a model. But in the latter example, there is the to 
marry, which is there the object of the verb. In this example, 
the verb partakes, therefore, of the nature of two different sortJB 
of verbs. It is simply an active verb, as far as relates to the 
thing proposed, namely, to marry ; and it is reflective, inso- 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



339 



much that the lady is, at once, the maker of the proposal and 
the person to whom the proposal is made. The reason why 
the participle does not agree with the noun donna in the latter 
example as it does in the former, is, I think, very clear: in the* 
former it is the lady herself who is proposed ,• in the latter 
it is the act of marrying that is proposed. We see that the 
herself and the model are one and the same thing ; while 
the herself and the to marry are two separate things. 

Second. When the verb avere to have, is employed as an 
auxiliary, it is the general rule, that the participle is to un- 
dergo no change to agree with the noun that is the object of 
the verb ; as : 



II ritomo della regina ha rallegruto i 
ctiori di tutta la Francia.j Ben. L. 

Avendo Cdilo scopirto V insidiose 
praticht, &c. Dav. St. 

Avendo acquislato \o re tntta la 
Spugna, &c. Sac. N. 

Ma consider^ndo Ciio, e gli altii, che 
hanno acquistdlo t fondato regni, 
&c. Mac. p. 



Tfce return of the queen has rejoiced 
the hearts of all France. 

Charles having discovered the treach- 
erous plots .... 

The King having acquired all Spain. 



But fonsidering Cirus, and the others, 
who have acquired and founded 
kingdoms . . , 



And not, rallegrdti, scopirte, acquistdta, acquistdti, fonddti. 
According to this rule, which is one in which almost all gram- 
marians agree, we must say, ho sperato la pAce, I have 
hoped for peace-, ho ricevuto le vostre lettere, I have 
received your letters; and not, sperdta, ricevute. However, 
though this is the rule, as laid down by grammarians, we find 
instances of a contrary practice amongst the best writers. For 
example : 



La m^rte di Monsignof Vescoro ha 
privcfta la chiesa d'un gran prelate. 

Ben. L. 

Avendo annoverdte mo\te delle buone 
qualitd dello stile, &c. Bec. D. S. 

Scipi6ne Africino avendo salvdta 
iiowiadaAnnibalej &c. Pan.G.F. 

Areva avuta la principale autoritd 
nel governo. Dav. S. 



The death of the Lord Bishop has de- 
prived the church of a great pre- 
late. 

Having enumerated many of the good 
quajities of style . . . 

Scipio Africanus having saved Rom* 
from Hannibal ... 

He had had the principal authority ia 

the government. 



& 



340 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Ecro in (pi.intn mi«6ri»i 
Tu lini precijiiti'iti 
Que'daoiniscri amanti. 



Gt A. p. F. 



Behold into what misery thou haat 
prfcijiilated thoie two wretched 
lovers. 



Third. If that which is the object of the verb come before 
the verb, then the participle is generally made to agree with 
the noun ; as : 



Qudnti dl solitari 

Ho cousumdli indarno ' 



Ta3. a 



M. I 



How many solitary days have I cori' 
sumrd in vain '. 



Qannta virtu ho io ptrtrgnitata ed I How much virtue have I pertecuted 
opprcsta ! SoA. N. [ and oppresstd .' 

Fourth. It is a rule, that, when the relative pronoun 
comes between the noun and the verb, the participle must 
always agree with the noun; as : 



II cappello che ho comprato, 
La lettera che ho scritta, 
I Ixbri che ho compruti, 
Le donne cht ho vedute. 



The hat rvhich 1 have bought. 
The letter that I have tvritten. 
The books that 1 have bought. 
The women whom I have seen. 



According to this rule are the following examples : 



L' amicizia che co' re di Frdncia 
hanno teniita. Gui. S. 

Isabtlla, che voi avete finor teniita 
in luogo di figlia, &c. Soa. N. 

Gl' incotnodi che la chiesa Romana 
avea ricetiiti da Federico. 

GiA.S. 

Tutti quelli, che tu hai offcsi in occu- 
pdre quel regno. Mac. P. 



The friendship that they have pre- 
served with the kings of France. 

Isabella, nhom you have till now kept 
in the place of a daughter. 

The vexations nhich the Roman 
church had rcceiced from Frede- 
rick. 

All those rvhom thon hast offended ia 
occupying that kingdom. 



Fifth. The last rule may have exceptions to it, when the 
participle precedes the auxiliary, a thing which occurs some- 
times ; as : 



La lettera che scritta av6te, 
Le donne che veduto hdnno, 



The letter which you have written. 
The ladies w bom they have seen. 



That is, literally: the letter which written you have; the 
ladies whom seen they have. The following example is of 
this kind : ^ 



Qaei dritti, ohe dato vi ba la natiira, 
*« Soa.N. 



Those rights^ wblch nature ;ha3 fxven 
you. 



i 



XX.] OF VERBS. 341 

Sixth. Whenever any one of the personal pronouns comes 
before the verb avere, representing the person or thing which 
is the object of the verb ; then the participle must agree witb 
the noun represented by the pronoun in gender and number; 
as: V 



lo av6va una casa, e I' ho venduta, 
Jo av6va due case, e le ho vendule. 



I had a house, and I have sold it. 

I had two houses, andlhaveso/cit/tem. 



Voi avete dei cani : dove li avete corti' j You have some dogs : where have you 
prati ? 1 bought thtm ? 

The following examples agree with this rule, which has no 
exceptions : 

Viene, peiche i' bo inuifata a venire, i ' She comes, because I have iwujfed Aer 

GoL. C. I to come. 

Q,uesta e la prima voltache ie ho ^as- J This is the first time that I have 
sate (le Alpi). Ben. L. I passed them (the Alps). 

Seventh. If, in using a noun as the object of the verb, 
there be the feminine indefinite article una before it, then the 
participle may either agree with the noun as to gender, or not ; 
as; 



?• Ho 
*• Ho 



Ho vedicta una casa, 
I have seen a house, ^ or, 

veduto una casa. 



Eighth. We must observe that, when the verb is 2l neuter 
verb, and one of those conjugated with avcre, and not with 
essere, the participle must always remain unchangeable ; as : 



Noi abbiamo pranzato, 
Le donne hanno cammindto, 
La donna ha cendto, 



We have dined. 

The ladies have walked. 

The lady has supped. 



Ninth. When the infinitive of a verb becomes the object 
of the verb avere as joined with the participle, then the par- 
ticiple is not to agree with any noun that may be in the sen- 
tence ; as : 

La donna che ho veduto partlre, I The woman whom I have seen depart, 

Gli uomini che avete intcso parldre, 1 The men whom you have heard speak 

This does not exactly accord with the Fourth rule given ; 
because here is the relative che relating to the nouns donna 



342 



SVSTAX 



[Chap. 



and v6tni)ii, and yet the participle remains, contrary to the 
examples under rule the Fourth, unchangeable in either case. 
But, we here sec the infinitive of a verb coming after the 
participle ; and this is the reason for the participle not chang- 
ing. The act of departiiuj and the act of speaking are 
here regarded as the objects of the seeing and the hearing ; 
and, therefore, the participle, which is employed to express the 
seeing and hearing^ does not agree with the nouns donna and 
ubminiy but remains in its original form. 

Tenth. When the active participle of avere is used with 
the passive participle of another verb, the passive participle 
may be made either to agree^ or not, with' the object of the 
verb. As : 



Havint; seen the woman, 



Having called the men, 



I 



Avendo teduto_ la donna, 

or 
Avendo t'eduta la donna. 

Avendo chiamato gli u6miDi, 

or 
Aveodo ckianuiti gli aomioL 



Eleventh. If the active participle avendo be not ex- 
pressed, but left to be understood, an idiom pointed out at 
Paragraph 253, then, also, the participle may either agree 
with the noun or remain unchangeable. In the first two of 
the following examples the participle does not agree, and in the 
four latter it does agree, with the noun, as will be seen : 



II caTallere veduto la bellczza della 
fanciiiila, la quale era rara, ..^c. 

Mac. S. 

Consiiieruto dunque tutte le cose di 
Bopradiscorse, &c. ' Mac. P, 

II governatore, chiamdte subito le 
bande di gente d'arme, &c. 

Dat.S. 

Intesa V ambascidta, xesto alquaiito 
sospeso. GiA. S. 

II pittore, accctta la commissione, ra 
a casa sua. G. Goz. N. 

£ avuta il Cardinale la risposta, la 
mostro al sao collegio. Fio.N. 



The gentleman, having seen the 
beauty of the girl, which was 
rare . . . 

Havinif considered, then, all the things 
spoken of above, . . . 

The govemor, having eaUed im- 
mediately the bands of armed peo- 
ple, . . . 

Having heard the message, he remain- 
ed somewlidt irresolute. 

The painter, having received the com' 
mission, goes to his house. 

And the Cardinal having had the 
reply, he showed it to his college. 



T"'p»TTFT^. Whenever the active participle of the verb 



' XX.] OF VERBS. 343 

essere is left to be understood, and, as' jn the examples just 
given, the passive participle of another verb is used alone; 
in all such cases the passive participle must agree with th© 
noun; as: 

Sparila la vxsi6ne, rimase si com- j The vis\»n being disappeared, he re- 
puDto,che &c. G. ViL. S. I mained so repentant, that .. . 

AUontanati in questa maniera dalla ■ The Cons<a6/e and the Z)«fee of Guise 
corte il Contestubile e il Duca di j being removed in this way from the 
Gaisa, itc. Day. S. j court, ... 



5th, Of the Sort of the Verb. 

256. Verbs are said to be of different Sorts, or,, as some 
grammarians call it, of different Genders ; for sort and gender 
are, as here applied, two words of synonymous meaning. There 
are ybi^r sor^s of verbs; namely, Active Verbs, Passive Verbs, 
Neuter Verbs, and Impersonal Verbs. These are the names 
by which verbs are generally distinguished as to their sorts, 
. 257. The verb is called Active when it describes an act 
done by some one person or thing to some other person or thing. 
Any verb, in short, which expresses an act^ when there is aa 
object of any kind which is the receiver of the act, or to which 
the act is done, is an active verb. Thus, to kill, to beat: 
these are active verbs, because, in using them, we understand 
that there must be some object, which object suffers the acts 
of killing and beating. Suppose the verb to describe some- 
thing merely of a moral kind, and in which there is no bodily 
action, such as to love, to esteem ; these are equally active 
verbs, nevertheless ; because, though the action here is only 
mental, there is an act, and the act must have an object. 

258. The verb is caWed Passive when it describes, not the 
performing of the act by the person or thing who does it, but 
the receiving or suffering of it by the person or thing to whom 
the act is done. Thus, to be killed, to be beaten, to be loved, 
to be esteemed : these verbs, as here employed, express that 
passiveness, that suffering of an act, which has caused the 
active verb, when thus used, to be called a passive verb. We 
see, then, that every active verb may be a passive verb ; and 



344 SYVTAX [Chap. 

that when the verb is such as is called passive, it is, in fact, 
nothing more than an active verb employed along with the 
verb to be, which verb to be expresses, as thus used, the cir- 
cumstance of passiveness, the receiving or bearing of the act. 

259. The verb is called A^c?(<cr whenever it is neither active 
nor passive. Verbs that express merely the existence, state^ 
or condition of things; all such are called /zeu/er. To be, to 
sit, to remain, to live, to reside, to divell ; these are all neuter 
verbs : they describe neither the doing nor the receiving of any 
act. But, to^o, to come, to run, to creep, to walk, to jump: 
by all of these there is decidedly action expressed. Yet, these 
latter are, also, all neuter verbs ; because, though there is an 
action expressed in each of them, that action is not done to, 
nor received by, any person or thing ; there is nothing, as aa 
object, to which the act passes over. There are some gram- 
marians who call those neuter verbs only which express some- 
thing in which there is no action, such as to be, to sit, to 
remain, to live, and such like. They call those verbs whicb 
do describe action, such as to go, to come, to run, in which the 
act is entirely confined to the actor, active intransitive verbs ; 
•while, such verbs as to kill, to beat, are called active -tran- 
sitive verbs. They call both active : the one transitive, be- 
cause the act passes over to, or has an effect on, an object 
beyond the actor ; and the other intransitive, because the act 
is confined to the actor and passes over to no other object. 

260. Some verbs are called Impersonal. Such verbs are 
defective as to some of their persons, they never being used in 
any person excepting the third person singular. There are 
some of the verbs called impersonal which must always be 
used impersonally ; and there are others, again, which some- 
times become impersonal, but which are not so at all times. 
When the verb is called impersonal, it is so called because it 
has, apparently, nothing belonging to it as a nominative ; that 
is to say, there is an act described as done, or a state of being 
as occupied, without there being any noun to represent the 
person or thing which performs the act or which occupies the 
state of being described. 

261. The active verb is sometimes said to be a Reflective 



XX.] OF VERBS. 345 

verb. The verb is reflective ^ when the actor and the object 
acted upon are both one and the same person or thing. Thus, 
he kills himself, they beat themselves : these verbs, as here 
used, would be called rejlective. The he and the they are 
here the actors ; but the act performed does not affect any 
object beyond the actors, but returns, as it were, or refiects. 
Upon the actors themselves. A rejlective verb, then, is no- 
thing more than an active verb, the act described by which 
has the actor himself for its object. The reflective verb is some- 
times said to be Reciprocal ; and that is the case whenever 
there is an interchange, or reciprocity^ in the performance of 
an act, between two or more persons or things. They kill 
each other ; they heat one another : here the killing and 
heating are alternately done by each to the other, by the one 
to the other. The persons or things are, by turns, both the 
actors and the receivers of the act ; and therefore it is that, 
when the verb describes this sort of interchange or mutuality, 
both in the performance and in the suffering of an act, it is 
called a reciprocal verb. 

262. These observations, as defining the different Sorts of 
verbs, are just as applicable to the Italian language as they are 
to ours. There are, however, some points that require parti- 
cular notice, in comparing the two languages here. I shall 
leave the verbs called impersonal to be spoken of last ; and 
shall first consider the active, passive, and neuter verbs. 

263. The verb simply active needs no explanation. Tomdso 
BATTE il tamburo, Thomas heats the drum ; Enrico a ma 
JEllena, Henry loves Ellen : the form of expression is here 
the same in both languages. 

264. In the case of the passive verb, the matter is equally 
plain. Here we employ the passive participle of the active 
verb, along with the verb to he as an auxiliary. The Italians 
do just the same: il tamhuro b battuto da Tomaso, the 
drum is heaten by Thomas; Ellena e amat'a da Enrico, 
Ellen is loved by Henry. There is one thing, however, in the 
use of the verb in its passive form, which makes the Italian 
sometimes differ from our language ; namely, a manner which 
the Italians have of using their verb venire, to come, along 

o 5 



346 ~ sYKTAx [Chap. 

with the passive j-articiple of an active verb, instead of using 
the auxiliary Userc. Observe the following examples: 



Sr non ti cliiima qtipsto pnese I'Ar- 
cidia, vitn nomivulo atincno il ;;iar- 
diiio della Fraucia. Ukn. L. 



If this country in not called the Arca- 
dia, it in, at least, namrd the gar- 
den of France. 



Guiflii-lmo IVII doniandara di che i William Tell asked what he mas 
vetiisir accuiulo. Soa. N. I urcusfd of- 



Tutto queslo reKuo, che venira rnp- 
prettnUiln allora Ax bi fn'and* as- 
bembl6a, flee. Ukn.L. 



All thin kingdom which was then r«- 
prrtmted by so great an assem- 
bly .. . 



Our verb to become is, sometimes, employed in a way very 
similar to the venire of the Italians ; our to become in place 
of our to be, the venire of the Italians in place of their 
essere ; as : 

Elvira ne tc;i»if (ory"u) a tempo arrrr- j Elvira became (or nos) informed of it 
tita. Soa. N. | in time. 

265. When the active verb becomes rejlcctivc, the Italians J 
employ, in conjugating it, the pronouns vii, me, ti, thee, si, 1 
him, her, or it, ca, us, vi, you, si, them. These pronouns, in 
such cases, represent our myself , thyself, himself, herself or 
itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. For example : 



lo mi redo, 
Tu /i vtdi, 
Egli si rede, 
Noi ci vediumo, 
Voi vi vedcle, 
Eglino si vcdono, 



I see myself. 
Tliou seesl lliyself. 
He .sees bim!>elf. 
We see ourselres. 
Yon .see yourselTes. 
TTiey see themselves. 



That is, literally, I me see, thou thee seest, he him sees, we us 
see, you you see, they the?n see. And so on it is, throughout 
every mode of an active verb when it becomes a reflective one. 
We, in English, use the word self or selves when the verb is 
reflective ; and the Italians may use their stesso or medtsimo^ 
which, as is mentioned at Paragraph 40, have the meaning 
of our word self. They may say, lo vcdo me stesso, or io 
vedo ME MEDESiMo, that is, / see me self ; and so on, with 
the other persons, singular and plural. But, this is not neces- 
sary ; and, indeed, it is not common to use the stesso or mede- 
simo, unless it be in cases where we should lay an emphasis on 
our word self or selves } as, I do not see you, / s^e my self: 



XX.] OF VERBS. ' 347 

in this case, the Italians would say, non vedo voi, vedo me 

STESSO, or ME MEDESIMO. 

There is one very remarkable manner which the Italians 
have of using the active verb reflective ; that is, when it is so 
used along with the little word si. This word, which is noticed 
in the Etymology of Pronouns, Paragraph 39, represents all 
our pronouns oneself^ himself, herself, itself, themselves. 
But it is constantly used, with the verb reflective, to express the 
meaning which we intend, in English, when we use the pro- 
nouns one, we, you, they, or people, meaning, by any one of 
these, people or the world in general. For example ; 

One ought not to do that, 

TKc ou^ht not to rfo that. I ., . , ^ ., 

You ought not to do that, C •' 

PiopU ought not to do that, -^ 

They say that we shall have war, 

People say that we shall have war, ^ Si dice che avremo la gnerra. 



/* is sAid that we shall have war, 



We love our friends, 

People love their friends, J- Si dmano gli amici. 

One loves one's friends, 



} 

} 



Ndw, if we translate the Italian literally, these Italian phrases 
mean: that ought not to do itself, it says itself that 
we shall have war, our friends love themselves. T|ie 
verb, in these examples, is purely a reflective verb ; and, ob- 
serve therefore, that the verb must, in such cases, always be in 
the singular or plural number according to the number oi tho 
noun with which the si is employed. Thus: 

We praise yirtue, 

One praises virtue, 

T/tey praise viitae, ^ Si loda Isi viitii. 

People praise virtue, 

"Virlae is praised, 

We praise virtues, 
One /(raises virtues,; 

7'hey praise virtues, ^ Si lodano le virtii. 
People praise-vixixxis, 
, Virtues are praised, 

That is, literally: virtue praises itself, virtues praise them- 
selves. We must observe, however, that though the Italian 



348 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



language has a great inclination to this manner of using the 
verb reflective, the Italians are not always constrained to ex- 
press themselves thus. Our words 7ve and thcy^ as used in 
the above examples, may be turned into Italian by using ttte 
verb in the first and third persons plural ; and, also, when our 
Terb is passive, as in the above examples, it may be turned ia 
the same way. As : 



Atniiimo gVi amiri, 

Dicono che avrcnio la puerra, 

La virtu t loduta. 



We love our friends. 

Thetj saij that we ihall have war. 

Virtue is praised. 



Observe, also, that the pronoun uno may be used to represent 
our o?ie as above employed ; as : 



Uno d' nvv^zza facilm6nte alia 
vita oziusa, 



One easily accustoms oneself to 
idle life. 



The idiom of employing si with the verb reflective is of such 
constant occurrence, and of so much importance, that I think 
it may be useful here to give a few more examples. 



Questa mi pare la piCi strana cosa che 
mai 5t udlsse. Mac. C. 

Oltre a questo non si pub con onestA 
satisfare a' grandi. Mac. P. 

Questa ingiiiria non si pottva telle- 
rare. M.\c. S. 

Con la fuga mal si compra una 
Vita. Met. O. 



I 



E poi si drizza in ver 1' ar6na bianca 

Ibione. 
Ari.O. F. 



Onde Ingbillcrra si nomb Albione 



L' 6dio s' acquista cosi mediante le 
ba6De upere, come le triste. 

Mac. P. 

lo desidero di sapere quel che si dird 
di quest' upera in loglultcrra. 

Ben. L. 

Quel che nel cor si porta in ran sifugge. 

GuA. p. F. 

Venne questa materia a deliberursi 
nel concilio. Mac. P. 

Poich^ la vita del re si conCbbe esser 
dubbiosa, &c. Da v. S. 



This appears to me the most strange 
thin:; that ever was heard. 

Beyond this one cannot, honestly, sa- 
tisfy the great. 

This injury could not be tolerated. 

A life is ill purchased with flight 

And then he directs himself towards 
the white .shore, whence England 
nas named Albion. 

We acquire hatred as much by means 
of good deeds, as evil ones. 

I wish to know what they mill say of 
this work in England. 



That which tie carry in the heart me 
fiee in vain. 

This matter came to be considtred in 
the council. 

When the life of the king was knovn 
to be doubtful. 



XX.] 



OP VEUBS. 



349 



Qaal padre maialtrett^ntosi vide fare 
per suo figlio ? SoA. N. 

Tatte le lejjgi chc si/anno in favore 
della liberU, &c. Mac. D. 

Non si p6sson imagiuare paesi piCl 
am^ni di quest! . Ben. L. 

Questi si dlcono prudighi, nimici del 
loro ben proprio. Pan. G. F. 

La potenzade' principi, die si dicc- 
vano aver parte nella congiiira, &c. 

Dav. S. 

Le simn1azi6ni, che destraraente si 
ttdoperdvano nella corte, &c. 

Dav. S. 

Fece edificare templi, ove si ador&s- 
sero li loro Iddii. 

G. ViL. S. 



What father did one ever $ee do so 

much for bis son ? 

All the laws that are made in favour 
of liberty. 

One caytnot imagine countries more 
pleasant than these. 

These are called prodigals, enemies 
ofiheir own good. 

The power of the princes, who were 
said to have part in the conspiracy. 

The counterfeits, which were dexter- 
ously employed in the court. 

He caused temples to be built, 
where their Gods might be wor- 
shipped. 



By these examples it will be seen what great use the Italians 
make of the si with the verb reflective. If we translate the 
above examples literally, the sense of the si along with the 
verb will be as follows: heard itself, satisfy cannot itself, 
could not tolerate itself, buys itself, named itself, acquires 
itself, will say itself, carries itself fees itself to consider 
itself knew itself, saw himself, make themselves, cannot 
imagine themselves, call themselves, said themselves, em.- 
ployed themselves, might worship themselves. 
- 266. When the verb, in the reflective form, is used recipro" 
cally, as it is called, it is conjugated with the pronouns cz, vi. 



^i , as : 



We see one another, 
You see one another, 
They see one another, 



Noi ci vedidmo. 
Voi vi vedcte. 
£glino St vcdono. 



The ci, vi, si, serve, in such case, to represent our one another 
or each other, as well as our ms, you, them. The Italians may, 
however, express our one another or each other by their uno 
and altro accompanied by the defnite. article, and say. 



Noi ci vediimo l'u7i I' altro, 
Voi vi vedete V un P altro. 
Eglino si vcdono Vun V altro. 



That is, literally: we us see the one the other ; you you see 



350 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



the one the other ; tli«y them see the one the other. Or they 
may exjjress our one another or each other by such words as 
scambicvulnuntc, mutually, reciprocaminte, reciprocally : ci 
amianio scamkievolmknte, we love each other; and so 
forth. 

267. What we have particularly to notice as' respects the 
neuter verb, is, that there are a great many verbs, in Italian, 
which, thjtigh merely neuter iu their nature, are, nevertheless, 
conjugated like active reflective verbs. There are many neuter 
verbs which are not reflective at all; as: 



andare, 


to ^0. 


venire, 


to come. 


caiuniinare, 


to walk. 


passegsjiare, 


to walk. 


Tias;ciare, 


to travel. 


gridire, 


to cry out. 


piansrere, 


to weep. 


dorm ire, 


to sleep. 


sedire, 


to sit 


pervcitire, 


to arrive. 


arrivare, 


to arrive. 


salire, 


to ascend. 


sc6ndere, 


to descend. 


iHorire, 


to die. 


nascere, 


to 1)6 born. 


vivere, 


to live. 


restire, 


to stay. 


riinanere, 


to remain. 


dimorire, 


to dwell. 


ritornare, 


to return. 


cadere, 


to fall. 


DSfire, 


to ^0 oat. 


pranzare, 


to dine. 


desinare, 


to dine. 


cenare. 


to sup. 


parlare, 


to speak. 


partre, 


to appear. 



These, like many others, are not reflective. So, we must say, 
with these : 



To vado. 


I go. 


Vol venite. 


You come. 


Ella camniina, 


She walL» 


Egli viaggia, 


Hetraveb 



And not, io mi vado, vol vi venite, ella si cammina, egli 
81 vidgcjittf and go on. But, there are a vast number of neuter 



XX.] 



OF VERBS. 



351 



verbs which must be conjugated in the reflective way. Such 
verbs are always distinguished in the dictionary by the Uttle 
pronoun si^ oneself, which is joined to the infinitive mode of 
the verb, as a sign of the verb's being a neuter verb rejiective. 
For example : 



ricorddrsi, 


to remember. 


ritirarsi, 


to retire. 


rallesvarsi, 


to be glad. 


deliberarsi. 


to reflect. 


rammaricarsi, 


to complain. 


levarsi, 


to arise. 


maravigliarsi, 


to be astonisbed 


contiistarsi, 


to be sad. 


scordarsi. 


to forget. 


vergognarsi, 


to be ashamed. 


ingegnarsi, 


toendeaTour. 


cBiarsi, 


to have care. 


degnarsi, 


to deign. 


dimenticarsi, 


to be nnmindfttl. 


pentlrsi, 


to be repentent. 



These, like many others, are conjugated like an active verb 
reflective ; as : 



io mi ricordo, 
tu ti ricSrdi, 
egli si ricorda, 
noi ci ricordidmo, 
Toi vi ricorddte, 
eglino si ricordano, 



I remember. 
Ihoii reraemberest. 
he remembers, 
we remember, 
you remember, 
they remember. 



And so on, from the beginning to the end of every such verb, 
throughout every mode and time. Observe, as a farther 
illustration of this, the two verbs maritdrsi and sposdre, v^hich 
are, in their origin, the same as our to marry and to espouse. 
The former of these can be used in Italian only as a neuter 
verb reflective, while the latter, is always an. active verb. If we 
mean to say, he wishes to marry, that is, to get married, 
we must translate it by, vuol maritarsi : if we mean to say, 
lie wishes to marry that woman, we must then use the 
active verb, ,and translate this by, vuol sposare quella 
donna. 

16^. We now come, lastly, to the impersonal \;*?rbs. There 
are some of these that are alwanjs impersonal; that is to 
say, that are never used but in the third person singular; 
namely: 



362 



SYNTAX 


]ii<^Tere, 


to rain. 


(liluviarr, 


to rain hard 


^r&ndindre, 


to hail. 


tuonare, 


to thunder. 


ghiaccidre, 


to freeze. 


dishiacciare, 


to til aw. 


nevicdre, 


to snow. 


balendre, 




or, 


■ to lighten. 


lampepijidre, 




far caldo, 




or 


to be warm 


essercnldo. 




far frcddo, 




or 


to be cold. 


esser freddo, 





[Chap. 



The above are, all of them, always used impersonally. Among 
the following, also, there are some which are verj' seldom, if 
ever, used in any other way than the impersonal ; 



avvenire, ] 
accadere, J 


to happen. 


convenire, 


to be proper, or fit 


bisopnare, 


to be necessary, or necdfal. 


bast a re, 


to be sufTicient. 


lec^re, 


to be lawfal. 


jmportare, 


to signify, or to be of conseqaenee' 


occ(3rrere, 


to be needful, or to occur. 


piacere. 


to please. 


dispiacere, 


to di.*please. 


rincrtscere, 


to grieve. 


parere, 


to appear. 


giovdre, 


to be of use, or to please. 


toco d re. 


to touch. 


fravare, 


to grieve, or to trouble. 


dolere, 


to grieve, or to pain. 


stare, 


to stand, or to be. 


fcssere. 


to be. 



Look back at Paragraph 260, where you will see explained 
the nature of an impersonal verb. The verbs in the first of the 
two foregoing lists are, as I before observed, always impersonal ; 
that is to say, they are used only in the third person singular. 
As, for example, taking pzouere, the first of them : 



pi6ve, 

piovcva, 

piove, 

piorer^, 

ha piovOto, 

avcvapiovuto. 



it rains, 
it was raining, 
it rained, 
it will rain, 
it has rained. 
it had r&iied. 



XX.] 



OF TERU 


S. 


ebbe pioTuto, 




it had rained. 


avra piovuto, 




it will liave rained. 


pi6vu, 




it may rain. 


piov^ss^ 




it might rain. 


abbia piovuto, 




it may have rained. 


avesse piovuto, 




it might have rained. 


piovercbbc, 




it should rain. 


avrebbe pioTuto, 




it should have rained 


pTtiva, 




let it rain. 


piovendo, "(. 

* ' 4 • 


raining. 


piovente, 


1 


o 


piovuto, 


1 


rained. 



353 



And so on with the rest. In speaking of warm and cold wea- 
ther, the Italians may use either of the verbs /are and esserer 
YjJcaldo, it makes warm ; or, e caldo, it is warm : YA^freddo,. 
it viakes cold ; or, e freddo, it is cold. Of the use of the 
verbs in the second list, as impersonals, observe the following 
examples : 



Afui^nequalcbe voltache . . • 
' IW' accade di essere . . . 
Conviene che parliamo, 
Sisogna che egli mangi, 
Basta che sia ricco, 
Voi, a cui lece sperare, 
JSon importa che venghiamo, 
Gli occorre di venire, 
Mi piace di vedervi. 
Mi displace che sia cosi, 

Mi riwcresce che sia ammalato, 
Pare che slate ricco, 
Che giova fuggire ? 
Tocca a me di far questo, 
Quanto mi grava che sia morto ! 

Ti dii6le di esser . . . ? 

Sta a me di andare, 

E vero che non sono ricco, 



1 It happens sometimes that . . . 
It happens to me to be . . . 
It is proper for us to speak. 
It isnecessary that he eat. 
It is sufficient that he be rich. 
You to whom it is allowed to hope. 
It is of no consequence that they comtv 
It is necessary for him to come. 
I like (itpZeases me) to see you. 
I am sony (it displeases me) that it 

is so. 
It grieves me that he is ill. 
It appears that you are rich. 
0/what use is it to flee ? 
It is for (it touches) me to do this. 
How much it grieves me that he is 

dead I 
Does it ^rifte thee to be ... ? 
It is for (it stands to) me to go. 
It is true that I am not rich. 



When the verb to be is used with the word there ; as^ there 
is a man in the house, there are men in the house : in this 
case, the Italians employ one or other of their adverbs ci, here, 
VI, there, along with the verb essere • and the verb is conju- 
gated thus: 



or K 

v'4, J 



Singular. 

there is. 



PLURAt. 



CI sono, 

or 
ri sono, 



> there are. 



354 







SYNTAX 




[Chaj 


SlNOHLAR. 


Pl-CRAL. 


c'era, 
or 


} 


there was. 


c* ^rano, 
or 


1 
J 


there were. 


T'era, 


J 




T* *rano, 




cifu, 

or 


} 


there was. 


. ci fiirono, 
or 


1 
J 


there were. 


Ti fu. 


3 




Ti fiiroBo, 




ci sari, 
or 




there will be. 


cisardnno, 
or 




there will be: 


Ti sari, 




Ti saranno, 




ci lia, 
or 


} 


ci siaao, 
there may be. or 




there may be. 


Ti sia, 


J 




Ti siauo, 




ci fosse, 

or 
Ti f6sse, 


] 


there might be. 


ci f(>ssero, 

or 
Ti fossero, 


} 


there might be. 


ci sarebbe, 

or 
Ti sartbbe. 


} 


there should be. 


ci sarebbero, 

or 
Ti sarebbero, 


} 


there should be* 


ci sia, 
or 


] 


let there be. 


ci sidno, 
or 


} 


let there be. 


Ti sia, 


J 




Ti sidao, 








/ 
^sserci, -i 
or 


• 
there to be. 










esservi, 












essindoci, 

or 
estindovi, ^ 


there being. 










isserci stito, 

or 
^sserTi state, -^ 


there to haTe been. 





To understand rightly the nature of impersonal verbs, we 
should consider the meaning of our little word it as used with 
the impersonal verb ; and then there is our word there, which, 
as we see in the foregoing conjugation, the Italians express by 
their ci or vi. I must give something, in addition to the fore- 
going examples, to show how our it and there are expressed in 
Italian. But, before I do this, the true meaning of these two 
words of ours should be explained. Observe, therefore, the 
following;: — " The pronoun it^ though a personal pronouDj 



XX.] OF VERBS. 355 

" does not always stand for, or, at least, appear to stand for, 
*' any noun whatever; but is used in order to point out a state 
*' of things, or the cavse of something produced. For in- 



" stance : * Itfreezed hard last night, and it was so cold, that 
" it was with great difficulty the travellers kept on their jour- 
'* ney/ Now, luhat was it that freezed so hard ? Not the 
^'^ frost ; because frost is the effect, and not the cause of, freez- 
*' iog. We cannot say, tlrat it was the weather that freezed ; 
" because the freezing constituted in part the weather itself. 
" No; the pronoun it stands, in this place, for state of things, 
** or circumstances ; and this sentence might be written thus : 
" ' The freezing was so hard last night, and the cold was so 
" severe, that the travellers found great difficulty in keeping 
*' on their journey.* Let us take another example or two. 
" * /Ms a frost this morning. It will rain to-night. It will 
" be fine to-morrow.' That is to say, ' A state of things called 
" frost exists this morning ; a state of things called rain will 
" exist to-night ; and to-morrow a state of things called fine 
" w;eather.' Another example : ^ It is delightful to see bro- 
*' thers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of 
" their days.' That is to say, ' The state of things, which 
** exhibits brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to 
" the end of their days, is delightful to see.' — In order further 
" to illustrate this matter, 1 will make a remark or two upon 
" the use of the word there. Example : ' There are many 
*' men, who have been at Latin-schools for years, and who, at 
** last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly.* Now, 
** you know, the word there, in its usual sense, has reference 
" to place ; yet it has no such reference here. The meaning 
*' is : that * many men are in existence, who have been at 
** Latin-schools.' Again : * There never was any thing so 
''beautiful as that flower.' That is to say, ' Any thing so 
*' beautilul as that flower ?tever existed, or never was in 
" being.' " * — To express the sense of our it, when used imper- 
sonally, it is not necessary to use any pronoun at all, in Ita- 
lian ; as, for example : 



* Cobbett's English Grammar, Paragraphs GO and 61. 



356 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Pinvfrtl Jim/ini matlina, 
£ molto calilo <'it;tji, 
Mi filter <li vttlirvi, 
E vero che non sono ricco, 



// nill rain to-morrow morninf. 
It is very warm to-day. 
// filensrs me to nee you. 
/( is true that I am not rich* 



Thus it is in the following examples: 



Vfro t che ^\i spPAsi patUmcnti, e le 
continue peraecuziuni, &c. 

Macs. 

A<^ tin principe b nrcessdrio avcre il 
pupoloamico. Mac. P. 



True it is that the freqnent parlis- 
ments, and the continual prosecu- 
tions . . . 

To a prinre it in necessary to have his 
people friendly. 



But we may, if we choose, express the it, in Italian, as well as 
in English, particularly with the verb cssere, to be ; and, then, 
our it must be represented by the pronoun cgti or ei, which, as 
we iiave already seen, means the same as our he ; as: 



Egli e tempo che io ritorni, 
Egli mi pidcedi vederri. 

Observe, also, the following: 

£gli b vero che Sofrunia 6 mia sposa-. 

Boc. D. 

Ma perchi egli c difficile accozzarli 
insieme, kc. Mac. P. 

^H ^come io dice— e^ii I la verity. 

M.\c.C. 

Se epli c meijlio esser amdto che te- 
muto,&c. Mac. P. 



It is time for me to return. 
Jt pleases me to see yon. 



// is true that Sofronia is my wife. 

But as il is diflicult to bring them to 
gether .... 

It is&sl tell jou— it is the truth. 

If it is better to be loved than 
feared . . . 



The egli, as thus employed, is sometimes contracted to gli by 
the poets ; as : 



Gli i ver ch' io non sono stata si infelice. 

Abi. O. F. 



Jt is true that I have not been so un- 
fortunate. 



As relates to the ci or vi, representing our there as used with 
the verb to be, observe, in the first place, that, if we be speaking 
in such a way as to be obliged to make some allusion to place 
or locality, we must use ci in speaking of what is near, and 
vi in speaking of what is distant. Thus, supposing ourselves 
to be in London j we ought to say : 



Ci sono molti in Londra che Io cre- 
dono, 



I 



There are many in London who be- 
lieve it. 



xxo 



Vi sono moiti in Roma che lo cre- 
dono, 



or VERBS. 

1 



357 



There are many in Rome who belicTe 
it. 



If we speak in such a way, that nothing in the way of place 
can be siipposed to be alluded to, then we may use either ci or 
vi with equal propriety ; as : . 



There is no one 1 love more than 

you, 
There is nothing he likes so much as 

hunting, 



Non c'i (or tj' c) nessuno che ami 
pi^ di voi. 

Non c' k (or «'i) nulla che gli piac- 
cia pill della caccia. 



The ci or vi, in the sense of our there, is frequently omitted, 
and left to be understood ; as : 



Era in quel tempo in Tracia un cava- 
liero, &c. Ari. O. F. 

irano in quel tempo tie papi, Gre- 
g6rio, Benedetto, e Giovanni, &c. 

Mac. S. 



There nas at that time a knight ia | 
Thrace, .... 

There were at that time three popes, 
Gregory, Benedict, and John. 



I cannot see how, properly speaking, the to be of the English, 
any more than the tssere of the Italians, can here be called 
impersonal, at all. I have considered them as such, in this 
place, only because it is the custom with grammarians to do so. 
The sense of our there, used as in the foregoing examples, and 
the manner of expressing that word in Italian, are, it is true, 
matters that need explanation -, but it is, in fact, rather to con- 
fuse than to explain, when we call the verb to he, used with 
the word there, an impersonal. When used with our it, it is 
clearly impersonal : 



E vero che non sono ricco, 

Vi sono moUi in Roma che lo cr^- 
dono. 



It is true that T am not rich. 
There are many in Rome who believe 
it. 



In the first of these examples, the essere in Italian, the to he 
in English, is clearly an impersonal verb. But not so in the 
second example : here the verb is not wanting in a nominative ; 
the nominative, here, is expressed in botb languages, molti is 
the nominative of sono, and many is the nominative of are» 
However, the Italians have a way of expressing our there is, 
there are, &c., in which the verb used is really impersonal. 
They sometimes use the verb avirCj to have, in this case, in« 



.158 SYNTAX [Chap. 

Btead of rsserc, to be; wliich manner much resembles the im- 
personal il y a of the French. They use the verb avtVe, in 
this way, either with or without the ci or vi. Observe the fol- 
lowing examples : 



£ tnppi, che in Veruna ible giA un 
Ttscovo, &c, D. Cas. G. 

E in (jBPxto tfiopo ibbe in Roma pi 6 
diverse mutazi6iii. U. Vil. S. 

Ogcimai lion i'/ia persona di senno, 
che presti alciina ffde a terrori si- 
fatti. So A N. 

Non ci Aa-annio, il qual non ami 
• d'e>s(rr felice. 8oa. N. 

A tal racc6nto niuno v' ebbe che po- 
tcsse freiiar le ligrinie. Soa. N. 



And know, that in Verona there iroj 
once a bishop . . . 

And in thie time there were, in Rome, 
many did'erent comoiotions. 

At this day there is no person of 

f^n^K who has faith in snch ter- 

-rors. 

I 

There is no man that does not love 

to be happy. 

At such a tale there rvas no one who 
could restrain their tears. 



That is, literally, had once a bishop, had in Rotne, there has 
no person, thei'e has no man, there had no one. The verb 
avere, when thus employed, must always be in the singular 
number, and must not agree in number with the noun, as esscre 
always does, when used in the same capacity: 



Ci ha, OR ti ha un uomo, 
C t, OR v' i un unmo, 



Ci ha, OR rj ha due uomini, "J^ 

Ci sono, on vi sono due uomini, ) 



There is a man. 



There are two men. 



The 2iumo and the uomini are here the nominatives of esserCf 
and, therefore, cssere agrees with the noiin in number; which 
shows that tssere is not, in fact, an impersonal in this case. 
The same nouns are, wuth avere, not nominativeSy but, on the 
contrary, they are in the objective case ; which proves that 
avere^ as thus used, is an impersonal. This use of avere in- 
stead oi fssere is not, now-a-days, very common; yet it is an 
idiom not unfrequently met with in modern writers. The fol- 
lowing example is worth observing in addition to the foregoing, 
more especially as the words form the very first sentence of 
Soave's excellent little grammar: 



Se v' ha studio che ad ojni g^nere Hi 
pers6ne si debbadir necessirio egli 
t quello della propria lingua. 



If there is a study which may be called 
necessary to all classes of persons, 
it is that of one's own language. 



XXL] OF VERBS. 359 



CHAPTER XXI. 

I 

I 

Op the use of AVERE and l&SSERE as Auxiliaries. 

269. It is of great importance to know the right use of these 
two verbs, which are used, in Italian, as auxiliaries, or assist- 
ant verbs, like our verbs to have and to Z>e. 

270. We have seen, in the conjugation of the verb esscrCj 
that that verb, in its compound times, has itself for its own 
auxiliary. Thus, the Italians do not say with us, io ho state, 
I have been, io aveva stato, I had been, io avrb stato, I shall 
have been, &c. ; biit, io sono stato, I am been, io era stato, I 
was been, io sarb stato. I shall h. o\3en, and so on. 

271. Avere is en)ployed as auxiliary with all verbs that are 
active zjidi not reflective ; as: 

ii fete am dto la donna, i You have loved the lady. 

Ho veduto I'uomo, I have seen the man. 

Ha perduto ua cavallo, I He has lost a horse. 

272. Then, again, essere is always employed to form the 
compound time when the verb is used passively ; as : 

La donna k amita, i The lady is loved. 

L'uomo e vediito, ) The man is seen. 



II cavallo k perduto, I The horse is lost. 

273. There are some neuter verbs which, in Italian, are al- 
ways conjugated with avere. Such are, pranzdre or desindrc, 
to dine ; cendre, to sup ; griddre, to cry out; dormire, to sleep; 
seder e, to sit; cdmmindrs, or passeggidre, to walk; viag" 
gidre, to travel; pidngere, to weep; parldre, to speak; ridere, 
to laugh; peccdre^ to sin; giuocdre, to play. Thus we must 
say: 



360 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



tlo pran/ito, 
//o (lesiaito, 
JIa crnito, 
Atrtr Kndato,' 
Abhiiimo dormito, 
Arite seduto, 
}lo cnmminitn, 
Hn passei;f;i^to, 
IJai Tin^jKiito, 
//a punto, 
Abbtiimo parldto, 
Avite riso, 
Uunnn peccato, 
Ho jiuocito, 



I have dined. 
I haTP dinad. 
He hns supped. 
You have cried out. 
We have slept. 
You liRve ititten, 
I have walked. 
I have walked. 
Tfiou hast travelled. 
He has wept. 
We have »poken. 
You have laughed. 
They have sinned. 
1 have played. 



There are a few neuter verbs, in English, which we use with 
either of the auxiliaries. We say, he lias gone, or, he is gone; 
I have come, or, I am come ; they havp. arrived ; or, they are 
arrived ; he has returned, or, he is returned. But the Italians 
always conjugate these neuter verbs to gOy to come, to arrive, 
to return, and some others, also, with tssere, and not with 
as: 



avere 



lo sono andato, 
Tu set veuiito, 
Egli e perveniito, 
Noi siumo arrivAli, 
Vol sicle nati, 
E^iino sono restatT, 
lo «a tomato, 
Tu eri entrato, 
£;;li 6ra svanito, 
Noi eravamo cadiiti, 
Voi eravdte periti, 
Ef^lino irano usciti, 
lo sono parito, 
Tu sri vissiito, 



I huvf jfone. 
Thou hast come. 
He has arrived. 
We have arrived. 
You are born. 
They have remained. 
I had returned. 
Thou hadst entered. 
He had vanished. 
We had fallen. 
You had perished. 
They had gone out. 
I have appeared. 
Thou hast lived. 



issere, and not avcre, is always employed in forming the com- 
pound times of the neuter verbs reflective ; as: 



lo mi <ono ricorddto, 
Tu ti set rilir.'ito, 
Egli si i rallegrdto, 
Noi ci siamo deliberdti, 
Yoi vi siete rammariciti, 
Eglino si $on» levati, 
lo mi sono maravii^liato, 
Tu ti set coDtristato, 
Egli si i. pentito, 



I have remembered. 
Thou hast retired. 
He has rejoiced. 
We have reflected. 
You have complained. 
They have risen. 
f have been astonished. 
Thou hast bttn sad. 
He has repented. 



So, also, with the active verbs ; for they, when they are re- 
Jlective, or what is called reciprocalf must be conjugated with 
tssere, aud not with avtre ; as : 



XXI.] 



OF VERBS. 



361 



To mi sono mostrato, 
Tu ti sei vediito, 
Noi ci sidino aniati, 
Voi vi sicte lusingati, 



I have showed myself. 
TIiou hast seen thyself. 
We have loved one another. 
You have flattered one another. 



In some few instances^, we may use either avere or essere ; as : 

l I have done myself harm. 

} 



lo mi sono fatto male, 

or 
lo mi ho fatto male, 



lo mi sono ferito, 

or 
lo mi'ho ferito, 



I have wounded myself. 



274. There is a distinction to be made as relates to the use 
of avtre or essere, when the verb is one of those which may, 
according to the sense in which it is employed, be either a verb 
neuter or active. For example, the verbs fuggire, to flee; 
satire J to ascend ; scendere, to descend ; passdre, to pass : 
vivere, to live ; crescere, to increase ; as : 



lo ho fuggjto i mi6i nemici, 

lo sono fuggito da' miei nemici, 

Tu hai salito il nionte, 

Tu sei salito a piede, 

£gli ha scesoil monte, 

Egli e sceso solo, 

lo ho passSto questa strada, 

10 sono passato per questa strada, 
Tu hai vissuto una -vita tribulata, 
Tu sei vissuto contento, 

Questo accidtnte ftocresciutoilraale, 

11 male I cresciiito, 



I have fled my enemies. 

I have fled from my enemies. 

Thou hast ascended the mountain. 

Thou hast ascended on foot. 

He has descended the mountain. 

He has descended alone. 

I have passed this street. 

1 have passed hy this street. 

Thou hast lived an unquiet life. 

Thou hast lived happily. 

This accident has increased the evil. 

The evil haj increased. 



We see by these examples, that, when the verb is used having 
something as an object j that we must use avere, and that when 
there is nothing described as an object of the act, then essere. 
We see, in the above examples, that, where avere is used 
there are objects which suffer or bear the acts of fleeing, as* 
csnding, descending, passing, living, and increasing: the 
enemies are Jled from, the mountain is ascended and de- 
scended, the street is passed, the life is lived, the evil is zw- 
creased, 

^15, Some of the neuter verbs which are conjugated in the 
reflective way, are, also, sometimes, active verbs. As contris- 
tdrsi, to grieve, dimenticdrsi, to forget, vergogndrsi, to be 
ashamed, Thus: - 



36^ 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



lo mi snno molto contrint^lo, 
L'ncridrntf mi An inoltorontristjito, 
lo mi tono dimcnticdto di prenderc 

ii libro, 
lo ho liimf-nticdto il libro, 
lo mi iono Tcrfi^o^ito, 
lo V ho vcrgognd(o, 



I have hwn mnch prleTed. 

T)n- nrcident lin» grlv^ed me much. 

I have forgotten to lake the book. 

I have forgotten the book. 
I have been ashamed. 
I have ihamed him. 



276. The verbs voUre, to be willing, potcre, to be able, and 
sapcre, to know, are sometimes conjugated with avcre, and 
sometimes with esstre. These-vcrbs are, now-a-days, almost 
always conjugated with avcrc; but, formerly, there used to be 
a distinction made, a distinction which some grammarians in- 
sist on, at the present day ; namely, that whenever the verb 
following volcre, potere^ or sapere, is one of those which are 
themselves to be conjugated with cssere, then either of these 
verbs going before it should be conjugated with cssere ; and, 
"when the verb following is a verb which is itself conjugated 
with avcrCf then either of these verbs, as preceding it, should 
have avcre as its auxiliary; as: 



lo sono voluto venire, 
lo ho voliito parldre, 
lo sono potiito venire, 
lo ho potiita parlare, 
lo sono sapiito venire, 
lo Ao sapiito parldre. 



I have wished to come. 
I have wished to speak. 
I have been able to come. 
I have been able to speak. 
1 have known bow to come. 
I have known how to speak. 



In using the compound form of the verb venire the Italians 
would say, bono venuto, I a?n come ; and with parldre, in the 
same form, they would say, no par Id to, I have spoken. 
Therefore it is, that this distinction should, strictly speaking, 
be observed, whenever the volcre, potcre, or sapere, precedes 
the infinitive of the other verb. 



XXII.] or VERBS. 363 



CHAPTER XXll. 

Of Case, and of the Governing of Cases. 

277. In the Etymology and Syntax of Nouns and Pronouns, 
I have already noticed the subject of Case. Those who make 
Italian grammars, use the term case, and speak of the different 
caseSy as they are called, and of th^ governing of cases -, but 
they do not tell us what case is, nor what are the natures of the 
different cases they mention. I have devoted a separate part 
of my work to the subject of Case, because I know that it is 
one of great importance, one that needs a good deal of explana- 
tion to make it well understood by the learner, and one that 
few grammarians have taken any pains to throw light on. 
There are some grammarians, and of those too whose works 
are the most instructive, that would protest against the use of 
all the terms, nominative, possessive, dative, objective, and 
ablative. Signors Biagioli and Barberi explode the sub- 
ject of Case altogether, by denying that there is any such thing- 
in the Italian language. Some grammarians ^dmit there to be 
three, some four, some^ve Cases; and others, again, discover 
a sixth Case. Those who tell us that Case does not exist, only 
avoid entirely, by that means, the performance of a principal 
part of the task they have undertaken. Here is a something, 
call it by whatever name we may, that requires to be taught. 
I shall not pretend to teach this thing by a new system ; that 
is to say, as far, at least, as mere names are concerned. The 
Signors Biagioli and Barberi have invented the terms 
d' extraction, d^ attribution, d'tloig?ieme?it, de tendance, de 
depart. How much better these terms may be calculated to 
elucidate the matter than those which they are intended to 

r2 



364 SYNTAX [Chap. 

supersede, I will leave it to the adopters of them to show, 
I have adopted the old-fashioned names for the Cases, as my 
reader will have seen at Paragraphs 29, 31, 33, 36, 39, 43, 
and 44, of Etymology, and from Paragraphs 116 to 130 
inclusive, in Syntax. But, while I have prefixed the words 
nominative^ possessive, and the rest, to the nouns with the 
articles and to the pronouns, I have not followed the example 
of those grammarians who use hard words, and who, at the 
same time, make no endeavour to show why such words are 
used or what is their tneaniyig. There are some grammarians 
who suppose that the Case of a noun or pronoun consists in the 
mere manner in which the word is spelled. Thus it is that 
BiAGiOLl and Barberi regard the matter, heing led away 
by the Greek and Latin, in which the diflferent Cases are 
expressed by the termination of the noun or pronoun ; and 
hence those writers have asserted the absolute noa-existence of 
the thing called Case in modern languages. 

278. In most Italian grammars we find Jive Cases spoken 
of; namely, the nominative, the possessive, the dative, the 
objective, and the ablative. The possessive is sometimes 
called genitive, and the objective is sometimes called accusa- 
tive. In the Latin language, whence these terms are derived, 
the noun and pronoun have to undergo changes in their spelling 
in order to express their Case. There is no such thing in the Ita- 
lian nouns, though there is in some of the pronouns, as we have 
seen in the Syntax of Nouns and Pronouns. As to these nameSy 
by which the different Cases are distinguished, they are names, 
and nothing more. They are those which are commonly used, 
and therefore I adopt them. It is the meanings of things, and 
not the mere titles by which they are distinguished, that are the 
objects of our inquiry. I have supposed there to he Jive Cases: 
ajid the following is the way in which I would explain the 
matter. 

279. The term case comes from the Latin, in which lan- 
guage it is called casus, which means, literally, a Jail j the 
noun casus being derived from the verb cado, to fall. The 
word casus has a variety of significations, but this is the origi- 
nal one. It may mean an accident, a chance, a happening y 



XXII.] OF VERBS. 365 

or a state of things. We find our language agreeing, here, 
with the Latin, whence the term is derived. We say *' if that 
should be the case,^* meaning, if that should happen, or, if that 
should be the state of things. We say " the horse is in good 
case," meaning, in good state or condition. There can be no 
state or condition of any kind without that state or condition 
having a happening or a coming to pass ; and so, in English, 
we say that *' a thing falls out,'' that *' a saint's du.y falls on ' 
such a day of the week," that " a misfortune befalls us ;" by 
%, which we mean, that the thing happens, that the saint's day 
happens, that the misfor^tune happens to us. The word case, 
- then, as a term in grammar, means nothing more than the state 
of, or whatever happens to, or befalls, the person or thing re- 
presented by the noun or pronoun ; and thus the noun or pro- 
noun, as the representative of the person or thing, is said to be- 
in this case or in that case. 

280. Verbs are said to govern Cases ; that is to say, to cause 
a noun or pronoun to be in one Case or in another Case, ac- 
cording to circumstances. There is one of the Cases, the 
nominative, which i§ subject to no such government. 

281. A noun or pronoun is said to be in the nominative 
Case, when the person or thing represented by it is simply 
named or spoken of as doing something, or as being in some 
way; as, Tomaso scrive, Thomas writes; Eglie buon scrittore,- 
he is a good writer. Here the noun and the pronoun are said 
to be the subjects of the verbs to lorite and to be. But when 
the noun or pronoun represents one person or thing as being the 
object of some act done by another person or thing, then the 
person or thing being that object is in the objective Case. The 
verb is then said to govern the objective Case, because the per- 
son or thing is by it made to become an object of the act. 

282. The governing verb is said to govern directly or indi- 
rectly. When it governs directly, the noun or pronoun is in 
what is called the objective Case ; when it governs indirectly, 
the noun or pronoun is in one or other of the three Cases called 
the possessive, the dative, and the ablative, 

283. When I say, lo vedo Tomaso, I see Thomas ; lo lo 
vedo, or lo vedo lui, 1 see him ; here the noun and pronouns 



36G SYNTAX [Chap. 

TonmsOy lo, lui^ are the direct objects of the verb vedercy to 
8ee ; and tiic noun or pronoun would Ijere be said to be in the 
ohjcctiue Case. 

284. But, there are the possessive, dative, and ablative 
Cases. They are marked by the prepositions iii,of, a, to, and 
T) Ay frotn, which are called the sigyis of these Cases. When 
the noun or pronoun is in either of these Cases, it is said to be 
subject to indirect (jovernment, as we shall see. 

285. The possessive Case has been so called, because it is 
used whenever- possessidJi is attributed to the person or thing 
described by the noun or pronoun. For example: il cavallo 
Di ToMASO, the horse of Thomas ; la casa di lui, the house 
of him. Here the possession of a thing simply is expressed. 
And hence it is that a noun or pronoun, when preceded by the 
preposition di, is always said to be in the possessive Case. But, 
observe, we may use di before a noun or pronoun when it is not 
the possession of a thing that is intended to be expressed; as; 
vi accuso DI FURTO, I accuse you of theft ; here it is not the 

: noun theft which is the immediate object of the verb to accuse, 
but the pronoun you ■ while the verb makes the noun theft 
(its indirect object) to be in the possessive Case, that is to say, 
to be preceded by the preposition di. 

286. The dative Case, marked by the preposition a, to, is 
so called from the Latin dativus, which means giving^ or apt 
to give. The verb governs this Case when there is a giving f 
directing, or communicating of any kind done to the person or 
thing rej)resented by the noun or pronoun ; as: ho dato il libro 
A ToMASo, I have given the book to Thomas; gli mandero il 
denaro, I will send him the money. Here, it is the nouns libro 
and denaro which are the immediate objects of the verbs dare 
and mandare, and the noun and pronoun Tomaso, gli, are not 
immediate, but indirect objects^ of the acts of giving and 
sending. 

287. The ablative Case is so called, from the Latin ablativus, 
which means taking away, or apt to take away. It is marked 
by the preposition da, from, as denoting division, separation, or 
abstraction. Example: hanno separdto il marito dalla 
woGLiE, they have separated the husband from the wife. Heie 



XXII.] 



or VERBS. 



367 



marito, in the objectiv^e Case, is the immediate object of the 
verb separdrCf and moglie^ in the ablative, is the indirect 
object. 

288. So far this matter of Case is plain enough. But there 
are, as relates to the three Cases, Possessive, Dative, and 
Ablative, some instances of remarkable dijfterence between the 
Italian and the English, and the notice of these is the main 
object of the present chapter. The Italians say, with us, 



curarsi di, 
pentirsi di, 
amm^nire di, 
impossessaisidi, 
spoglidre di, 
privare di, 
lagiidrsi di, 
rallegrarsi di, 
gloriaii di, 



to be mindful of. 

to repent of. 

to warn of. 

to possess oneself of, 

to dispossess of, 

to deprive of. 

to complain of, ' 

to be glad of, 

to boast of. 



In all the above examples,, we see our of corresponding to the 
Italian di. Here the verbs in the Italian govern the possessive 
Case, and ours perfectly agree with them. But, mark the fol- 
lowing, in which we see all the Italian verbs governing the 
possessive Case, while, to translate the Italian di, we have the 
prepositions, with, for, at, in, on. 



innamorarsi di, 
provvedere di, 
fornire di, 
abbondave di, 
vestire di, 
empire dJ, 
contentarsi di, 
biasimlre di, 
dolersi di, 
, , ridere di, 

mancare di, 
fidarsi di, 
pdscere di, 

•Then, as to the dative Case : 



to fall in love with. 

to provide with. 

to furnish with. 

to abound with, or in. 

to dress with, or in. 

to fill with. 

to be contented wiiA. 

to blame for, 

to be sorry for* 

to laugh at. 

to be wanting in. 

to have faith in. 

to feed on. 



dare a, 
manddre a, 
rispondere <t, 
insegnare a, 
r6ndere a, 
somministrare a, 



to give to, 
to send to. 
to reply to. 
to teach to. 
to render to. 
to administer to. 



368 



SYNTAX 



[Cliap. 



nr^ire n, 
jironultcre a, 
c^dere a, 
BggiuDgere a, 



to deny to. 
to promise to. 
to rede to. 
to add to. 



Here the two languages agree. But they differ again in the 
following, wlierein we see our vi, for, of, from^ with, all 
having to answer to the Italian a : 



credere a, 
proTved^re a, 
pensare a, 
doinandirc a, 
rirliitdere a, 
rascondere a, 
celare a, 
rimproverire a, 



to believe in. 
to provide ybr. 
to think of. 
to inquire of. 
to require of. 
t" hide from. 
to conceal from. 
to reproach with. 



Then, again, there are a good many verbs which, in our lan- 
guage, govern the objective Case, and require no preposition 
after them, but which govern the dative in the Italian. Such 
are the following : 



nn6cere a, 


to hurt. 


piacere a, 


to please. 


dispiac^re a, 


to displease. 


chitdere ti, 


to ask. 


soddisfare a, 


to satisfy. 


nbbidire a 


to obey. 


ordindre a. 


to order. 


riniinziire a, 


to renounce. 


resistere «, 


to resist. 


rimediire a, 


to remedy. 


contrastare a, 


to withstand 


iuvidiare a, 


to envy. 


perdoudre a, 


to pardon. 



Some few verbs may be used either governing the dative or the 
objective ; as uhbidire and soddisfare : we may say, ubbidir- 
gli, to obey to him, or ubbidirlo, to obey him; soddisfargli, 
to satisfy to him, or, soddisfarlo, to satisfy him. 

Verbs governing the ablative are, as before observed, fol- 
lowed by the preposition da, from, as the sign of that case; as: 



dividere da, 
assrtlvere rfa, 
derivare da, 
cacciare da, 
rimorere da, 
sbandire da. 



to divide yrom. 
to absolve yVotn. 
to derive from. 
to drive /rom. 
to remove from. 
to banish from. 



XXII.] 



OF VERBS. 



369 



But, there is one thing here which it is very important to notice ; 
namely, the use of the dative in place of the ablative^ which 
often occurs after certain verbs that signify different manners 
of removing^ or taking away^ such as toglierey levdre^ invo- 
IdrCy rapirc, rubdre, froddre^ imboldre, furdre. Observe 
well the following examples : 



miste le tenebre col foco 



Toglxcan la vista a gli occhi, e '1 lume 

\_aV antro. 
Car. E. 

Non avrebbero voliito torla a Francia 
per darla a loro. 

Mac. P. 

E tolse loro dopo la vittoria la liberta. 

Mac. p. 

Percli^ Crerusalem non riavete, 
Che tolto 6 stato o vol da' rinnegdti ? 

Aki. O. F. 

Cli fa tolta la sua donna poi. 

Ari. O. F. 

Qual il past6r a cui '1 fier lupo ha tolto 
II pii^ bel toro del coniuto armento. 

Pol. S. 

• 

E levdr quesla donn^ anco ti v6glio. 

Ari. O.F. 



— levato ho 1' elmo al conte. 
Ari. O.F. 



The shadows, mixed with the fire, 
took the Sight from my eyes, and 
the light from the cave. 



They would not have wished to take 
it ( Lombard y) from Fiance to give 
it to thera. 

And after the victory he took their 
liberty from them. 

Why do you not recover Jerusalem, 
which has been taken from you by 
the renegades ? 

His mistress was afterwards taken 
from him. 

Like the herdsman from whom the 
cruel wolf has taken the Quest bull 
of the horned drove. 

And [ will also carry off this lady 
from thee. 

I have trnken the helmet from the 
count. 



iamiV inv6li. Gua.P.F. | T\\om sttaltst ihyseM from me. 



Av^ndo i Saracini rapita a' Cristiani 
la grande Orifidmma loro, &c. 

SoA. N. 

lo vt 1* ho iniquam^nte rapita. 

SoA. N. 

Fui, non so come, a me stesso rapito. 

Tas. a. 



un anello, 



Che fu rubato in India a una regina. 

Ari. O. F. 

II pane, the tu frodavi ad un vecchio 
Idnguido, &c. Soa.N. 

Rispondcva che 1' area gli era stata 
imbolitta. Boc. D. 

Un suo vicino che gli aveva imboluto 
le ciriege. fJov. Ant. 



The Saracens having taken awa%j 
from the Christians theirgreatgolden 
standard. 

1 have unjustly taken her arvay from 
you. 

I was, I know not ho^, ravished from 
myself. 

A ring, which was stolen in India 
/rom a queen. 

Thebread, which thou pilferedstfrom 
a feeble old man. 

He replied that the chest had been 
stolen from him. 

A neighbour of his who had stolen 
the cherries from him. 



r5 



'370 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



Sfu/tti, in''schin, ilnl petto il ticco 
Ch'a le sleAbu UJuta, &c. [errdre 

Poi.. S. 

La sembitfnzadi lei cbeme a mr/ura. 

For.. 8. 



Drivr, wretch, from thy breast th« 
blind error Mhich sttalt thee from 
thy!.elf. 

The likeness of her vrbo steals me 
Jroin inyBClf. 



This use «)f the dative in place of the ablative is an idiom of 
great itnporta/ice. Our language knows nothing of it, and 
the Italian has it from the Latin. In order to explain this 
seeming inconsistency in the language, some grammarians say 
that the a doeSy inj'act, in this instance, memi the same as the 
DA. But, if we were to grant this, what are we to say to the 
pronoun in the dative Case v:ilhout any 'preposition? In the 
above examples we see the dative pronouns lorOy to them, gli, 
to him, ti, to thee, mi, to me, ve, to you; ahd, supposing that 
the a gli occhi, a V antro, a Francia, a voi, a cui, al conte, a' 
Cristiani, a me stesso, a una regina, ad un vecchio, a te stesso, 
a me ; supposing these to mean, from my eyes, from the cave, 
from France, and so on; still, it can hardly be said that the 
sense of our from is included in the pronouns loro, gli, ti, mi, 
ve. The truth is, that the verbs in the above examples do 
govern the dative, and not the ablative Case, and "that we are 
not at all to understand the sense of our from as being in- 
tended, much less expressed, but, on the contrary, that of our 
to. There is a principle, however, on which this idiom is 
founded ; and the rule is this, that, whenever a \'erb signifying 
a taking away of removing from of any kind is used in a 
manner denoting that there is any deprivation caused to the 
person or thing from whom or from which the taking takes 
place, or if the person or thing be in any way affected by the 
taking away ; then the verb governs the dative ; because, it is 
understood that there is something done to the person or thing 
which is represented by the noun or pronoun. In the second 
of the above examples, we see the verbs tugliere, to take away, 
and dare, to give, both governing the very same case : torla a 
Francia, to take it from France, per darla a loro, to give it 
to them. It is meaned, that France is an object affected by 
the taking away of Loniibardy ; and, therefore, the Italians 
here say, to take it away to France, meaning, to do to France 



XXII.] 



OF VERBS. 



371 



the act of taking Lombardy away. But we must take notice 
(for here is a distinction to be made which explains the matter), 
that, if we speak of a person or thing as being merely a quarter 
or place from which the taking is performed, and not as an 
object in any way affected by the taking, then the verb must 
be followed by the preposition da ; as : 



E tohe dalla imroonda e bassa plebe, 
Ed esalti) all' imperio Massimino. 

Ari.O.F. 

Slegb la donna, e la levb dal lido. 

Ari. O. F. 



And he (God) took Maxirain from 
the dirty low mob, and exalted him 
to the empire. 

He untied the lady, and took hexanay 
from the shore. 



Now, in all of the eighteen foregoing examples, there is clearly 
an act, tending to deprive, expressed as being done to the 
persons and things represented by the nouns and pronouns in 
the dative Case. While, on the contrary, in these two latter 
examples, it is equally clear that the same sort of idea is not 
intended. Here it is not meaned, that the mob is deprived of 
Maximin, or that it is in any way affected by the taking ex- 
pressed : the mob is spoken of merely to mark the grade in 
society whence Maximin was elevated. Again, the shore is 
jnentioned merely as a 'place whence the lady was removed, 
and not as something deprived of the lady, or in any way 
affected by her removal. In short, it is not here given to be 
understood that there is any thing done to the mob, or to the 
shore. Let us take one more example : 



I ladri hanno tolto 11 dandro aW* 
avaro, 

II danaro fu tolto dalla cassa del 
avaro, 



The thieves have taken the money 
from the miser. 

The money was taken from the coffer 
of the miser. 



The miser is an object suffering deprivation by the act of 
taking the money, there is something done to the miser; and, 
therefore, it is right to say all* avaro, and not dall' avaro. 
The coffer, on the contrary, is not to be regarded as deprived 
at all, but merely as a place whence the money was taken ; 
and here, therefore, it should be dalla cassa, and not alia 
cassa. SiGNOR Biagioli explains this matter in the follow- 
ing words : " Pour bien apprecier ces differences, il faut 1* etude 
*' reflechie des classiques, et un certain sentiment que donne 



372 SYNTAX [Chap. 

" seule r habitude du travail et de la rfjicxion /" The work 
of this grammarian is certainly a clever one. Yet, what docs 
he here do for his readers, but recommend them to their own 
studious reflection and labour: what do his words mean but 
this, '* you must Jind it out for yotirsclves ?" He says that 
"U'c must have a *' certain sentiment ;'' and this is to be the 
fruit of our study, labour, and reflection. But if Sigkor 
BiAGiOLi had himself already gathered this fruit, it was his 
business to make his readers partake of it. Or, did he consider 
the " sentiment^' to be one so refined as not to admit of com- 
munication ? * 

The sense of our preposition for, which, in many cases, is 
nearly the same as that of our to, may be expressed in Italian 
by the personal pronoun in the dative Case ; as in these 
examples : 

V<jlscro gundagnarst mezzo lo stnto I They wished to pain for themsehes 
di Lombardia. Mac. P. I half ilie state of Lombardy. 

289. There is one thing more to be observed respecting th/^i 
matter of Case ; namely, the idiom which 1 have already noticed 

* If we observe the French language, we find just tlie same principle 
prevailing with the verbs enlever, fiter, emportcr, derober, urracher, and 
fiuch-like. Go to the Latin, and that language puts the question beyond 
dispute ; for, there the Case muat always be known by the, termination of 
the noun or pronoun. Take the following examples. 

Auxilio mihi opus fuerat et Consulis, et SonalCis : quorum alterum etiani ad perniciem 
tucam erat a vobis consulibus conrertnm; alterum rft°)ntii{ic<r penitus rrrptum. 

CICERO, Orat.inPiso. 



ma<rt multis balatibus a^nuio 



Martius a stabulis ropuit kipus. 

VIRGIL, m*. Mb. ix.565. 

Pugnet, et adrersns tendat Alcnelabi in hostel : 
Lt rapiat Paridi, quam Paris anti siki. 

OVID, Episl. xi. 73- 

Neqae detractunx ci tum quidquam est. qui pi) st pose it nosci, qui siet : 
Ipse rri^uitvi,iu digito quem habuit, cirgint abicus auDuluui, 

TERENCE, Hec. Act. it. Sc. i. 57. 

These verbs, eripere, rapere, detrahere, have all on ablative sense; 
they signify a taking axvay of some sort : yet, the nouns and pronouns 
BEiPUBLic^, MAiRi, Paridi, sibi, EI, viRCiNi; all thess are in the 
dative Case, and properly so, for the reason above stated. 



XXII.] 



OF VERBS. 



373 



at Paragraph 146, in speaking of possessive pronouns. It is 
the use of the definite article along with the personal pronoun 
in the dative Case, instead of the possessive pronoun ; as : 



II daca ordin6 che gli fosse tagliata la 
testa. Ban. N. 

Se ti sento favellaie, io ti tagliero il 
collo. M.\c. C, 

Ambo le labbra per furor si morse. 

Tas.G.L. 



I 



The duke ordered that hit head 
should be cut off. 

If I hear thee speak, I will cut thy 
throat. 

He bit both his lipn for rage. 



That is, literally : that the head should be cut off to him ; I 
will cut the throat to thee ; he bit both the lips to himself; 
instead of, che fosse tagliata la sua testa, io tagliero il tuo 
collo, ambo le sue labbra morse. Again, a noun in the pos- 
sessive Case, in English, may, in the same manner, be in the 
dative in Italian; as : ho salvato la vita a Tomaso, Hterally, 
I have saved the life to Thomas ; instead of, ho salvato la 
vita Di Tomaso, I have saved Thomas's life, or, the life of 
Thomas. 



374 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



Syntax of Negatives. 



290. What we have particularly to observe as to the nega- 
tive, is, that, in Italian, there must, in many cases, be a double 
negative, where we should employ the negative singly. No- 
thing but practice can teach this matter perfectly. Yet, it is 
a matter of so much importance, that the learner ought to have 
the benefit of whatever rules and explanations can be given. 

291. Our principal negatives are the words wo, noty nor, 
and neither. These negative words are called adverbs of 
negation. The Italians express our no by no, our not by non, 
our nor by ne, and our neither by ne. For example : 



Do you speak? 
^0, 1 speak not. 

Neither Thomas nor John will 
go thither, 



Parlate ? 
2Vo, non parlo. 

jSi. Toma»o n'c Giovdnni v' an- 
draoDO. 



The negative non always precedes the verb ; and, therefore, 
while we may say, / speak ^ot, or, / do "SOt speak, the 
Italians say, non parlo^ but not parlo non. 

292. When our neither and nor are employed together to 
express negation as to two different acts or states of being, the 
neither must be expressed by non, and the nor by ne ; as: 



I neither write nor read. 

You neither were tior are happy. 



l^on scrivo nh leggo. 

Non eravate n'c siete felice. 



Also, when our verb to be, or some verb expressing existence, 
is followed by neither and nor, and there are two states or 
manner of being both spoken of in a negative way, the ne must 



XXIIL] 



OF NEGATIVES. 



375 



be employed before each of the words descriptive of the state 
or manner of being ; as : 



He is neithei- a miser nor a pro- 
digal, 

The horse is neither hamlsome 
nor ugly, 

I am neither well nor ill, 



Egli ^on e ne avaro ne pr6digo; 
II cavallo non ^ 7ib bello tic brutta. 
Non sto nt bene ni male. 



293. When the nd is made use of for our nor and neither 
before two nouns or pronouns, and the nouns or pronouns are in 
the nominative Case, the negative, in ItaHan, is single, as in 
the example before given, ne Tomaso ne Giovanni v' an^ 
drdnno. But if there be a verb preceding the first ne which 
causes the nouns or pronouns to be in any Case but the nomina- 
tive, then the Italian requires non in addition to ne ; as : 



I see neither Thomas nor John, 
You love neither the one nor the 

other. 
He will give it neither to me nor 

to you, 



Non vedo ne. Tomaso nc Giovanni. 
Non amate nc V uno nt V altro. 

Egli non lo dara nh a me nc a voi. 



294. In many cases where avc should use our either and or, 
the Italians use their ne, neither or nor, and not their o, either 
or or ; as : 



Without seeing either the one or 
the other, 

I do not think he is either fortu- 
nate or prudent. 



Senza veder n't V uno «c 1' altro. 

Non credo che sia nh fortundto nc 
prudente. 



296, When we make use of the comparative degree, with 
our word than, there being a verb expressed after the than, 
the che, which represents our than, in Italian_, must be followed 
by the negative non ; as : 



He was more rich than you are. 
They speak better than they write, 

Again, in the following example : 



Egli era pi\i ricco cAevoi non siete. 
Parlano meglio che non scrivono. 



Ha corabattuto meglio con la forza 
de' consigli, che 7ion han fatto gli 
altri con quella dell' armi. 

Ben, L. 



He has fought better with the force 
of his counsel, f/i«n others have done 
, with that of their arms. 



296. In such cases as those in which our but is employed in 



376 



SYNTAX 



[Chap. 



a negative or excliiRivc sense, the Italians express themsleves 
by the phrases non altro che, non se non, non che, non che 
non ; as : 

/S»n fa allro eke parlire, 
„ , or 



I 



1 ]iovi» but one horse, 

You have but to asL to obtain it. 

Not a day passes buthe comes to 
our house, 



Non fa se non parlare. 
A'on ho che un cavnllo. 
Kon nv^te che a chi^dere per 

ott^nerlo. 
A'on passa i^iorno che non T^nga 

a cosa Dostra. 



297. Our ever and Jievcr are both expressed, in Italian, by 
the words mai or (jiammai. Mai is more frequently used. than 
giamnUii ; as: 

Have you ft«r seen him ? | L'av6te mai vediito. 

The dearest friend I ei'rr had. ( II pii^ caro amico che av^ssi mdi. 

When used in the sense of never y the mdi or giammdi generally 
requires non along with it, and the non may either precede or 
come after the verb ; as : 



{ 



Jion V ho Tediito mat, 
I have never seen him, \ or, 

Miii non 1' ho vediito. 



Our never again, never more, or not any more, is expressed 
by non mdi piil ; as : 

You will never see him again, | Non lo ^edrtte mai piu, 

Mdi has sometimes one of the adverbs no or s} joined with it ; 
and, in that case, the mdi serves to add force to the negation 
or affirmation expressed : maino, meaning, Tto^ at all, no 
never, or by no means ; maisi, meaning, yes indeed, verily. 

298. The Italian negative no, as contrasted with the affirm- 
ative s), means, in one case, the same as both our not and no, 
and that is, when it is used with the preposition di, after some 
verb expressing assertion, belief, or assurance; as: dico di no, 
credo di no, I say not or no, I believe not ; dico di si, credo 
DI si, I say yes or so, I believe so. The Italians also use no, 
in the sense of our not, after the words perche and forse : they 
say, pcrchc no ? why not'^. and not perche non ? forse no, 



XXIII.] OF NEGATIVES. 377 

perhaps not, and noiforse non. If, however, there be any 
verb expressed with the perM or forsCj non must then be 
used, and not no ; as : 



-Perch^ non Y avete fatto ? 
Torse non V av6te fatto. ~ 



Why hare you not done it ? 
Perhaps you have not done it. 



Our adverbs hardly^ scarcely, followed by when or hut, 
are represented by appena. . These adverbs of ours always 
include in themselves a negative meaning ; but, in Italian, if 
the appena stand after the verb to which it is added, it must 
be preceded by non ; as : 



Non vi fui appena coraparso che la 
corte mi destiu6 a questo carico. 

Ben.L. 



I had hardly appeared there, when 
the court destined me to this em- 
ployment. 



299, The pronouns nessuno, nissuno, neuno, niuno, nulla, 
Dobody, no one, or none ; nulla, or niente, nothing ; veruno, 
no one, nobody, any : all these include in themselves negation ; 
yet, they are frequently accompanied by the negative non. It 
is given as the rule byGALiGNANi, that these pronouns must 
precede the verb to adopt them without the negative ; for, if 
they be after the verb, the negative non should stand before 
them 3 as : 



Hessuno ha parlato meco, 
Nonho parlato con nessiLcno, 



No one has spoken with me, 
I have spoken with^o one. 



The latter of these examples would, literally translated, make 
very bad English: / have not spoken with no one. And, 
according to reason, the mode of expression is equally bad 
Italian. It would seem more consistent with principle to use, 
along with the negative, the word alcuno, which means some 
one or some, any one or any. Practice, however, favours the 
double negative ; and it is more common to say, non ho par- 
lato con NESSUNO, than, non ho parlato con alcuno; 
though the latter of these is, undoubtedly, perfectly good Ita- 
lian. So we may say, either, 

JEgli non ama 7iessuno di voi, -j 

or, > He lores not any one of you. 



Egli non ama alcuno di voi. 



378 



Voi non avete nulla altra raf;i(Soe, 

or, 
Voi non avite alcana altra ragi6ne, 



SYNTAX [Chap. 

You hare not any other reason. 



J 



Nulla and niaitc have both tlie same meaning ; both repre- 
senting our word nothing . With nulla ^ in the sense of no- 
thing, when unaccompanied by any noun, there is understood 
the word cosa : nulla cosa, no thing. These words, as 
also vcrunOy are sometimes used in a negative sense, with the 
non, and sometimes otherwise ; as : 



Non voglio nicnte, 
Volele ntentef 
JVim ne so nulla, 
Avete nulla a dirmi ? 

Volete7iu//n« 
Kon posse trovdr veruno, 
Quest' Abn non ha virtu veruna, 
So avete amorveruHo per me, 



I vi&ni nothing. 

Do you want nnything, or nothing. 

I know nolhivfi of it. 

Have you ani/thing, or notking, to 

tell me ? 
Do you want anything. 
1 can find nobody. 
This herb has no virtue. 
If you have any love for me. 



After the adverb senza, the Italians generally employ the nes- 
sunOy nissu.no, &c. ; but, in this case, aZcw/io may be used; 
as ; . 



E regno senza av^reguena con niiino 



vicino, &c. 



G. ViL, S. 



Senza usser mai da alcuno conos- 
ciiito. ^Boc. D. 



And he reiqned nilhout having war 
with any neighbour. 

I Without being ever known to any 
I one. 



300. One more observation, as relates to the negative non. 
Those verbs which signify y<?ar, doubt, or suspicion, being fol- 
lowed by che, have the negative non after jhem, or otherwise, 
pretty much the same as in our language. Such are the verbs, 
temCre, to ie^r ', ai^er paM7'a, to be afraid; dubitdre, to doubt 
or fear ; sospettdre or sospicdre, to suspect. For example : 



Terao che egli won venga, 
Temo che egli venga, 
Ho paura che non sia vero, 
Ho paiira che sia veto, 



I fear that he will not come. 
I fear that be will come. 
I am afraid that it is not true. 
I am afraid that it is true. 



:SiGNOii Peretti gives the following examples, showing the 
difference, here, between the Italian and the French : 



Je Grains qup cet enfant ne tombe 
dans I'eau, 



{ 



Temo che quel bambino cada 

nell' acqua. 
I fear that that child will fall in 

the water. 



.xxiir.] 



OF NEGATIVES. 



379 



Je ciains que mon fr^re w'obti- 
eune pas cette charge, 



Temo che mio fratcllo non otten- 



J j;a (juella cdrica. 

J I fear that my brotlier w 



ill 7lQt 



obtain that employment. 



Though the Italian does, as in the above examples, agree with 
the English, both differing from the French ; nevertheless, there 
may be found examples in practice, in which the Italian agrees 
with the French and differs from the English, the no7i being 
used where we should not employ any negative ; as : 



Essendo dunque seguita questa pace, 
si temeva solo che il re Alfonso non 
la turbdsse. Mac. §. 



This peace having, then, taken place, 
it was fe-.ired only that king Al- 
phonso might disturb it. 



But, in this example as in all of the like that may be given, the 
employment of the negative is contrary to Italian grammar. 

After such verbs as the above-mentioned,, the non is some- 
times employed, the che being omitted ; as : 



Forte tem6a non forse di questo alcun 
s' accorgesse. Boc. D. 

Temetlero now questa cosa si risa- 
pesse. Boc. D. 

Costui t si sciocco, che io ho paiira 
non guastasse ogni cosa. Mac. C. 

Dubitdvan forse non Ser Ciapelletto 
gP ingannasse. Boc. D. 

Comincio a sospicar non costui desso 
fosse. Boc. D. 



He feared much that some might dis- 
cover this. 



They feared that this thing might 
come to be known. 

That fellow is so foolish that I am 
afraid he might ruin everything. 

They were afraid that perhaps Mr. 
Ciappeletto might deceive them. 

He began to suspect that this person 
was the same. 



SiGNOR Barberi says that the employment of the 7^o?^, as 
in the foregoing examples, is perfectly correct ; because there 
is something left to be understood, which, if expressed, would 
render the negative necessary. Thus, says he, the phrase, 
temo NON venya mio padre, I fear my father may come, 
means, temo, non volendo che mio padre venga, I fear, 
not being willing for my father to come. In this way, we 
may reconcile the Italian with our own language in the ex- 
amples just given: forte temea, non volendo cue forse 
di questo alcun s' accorgesse ; &c. 

301. The negative nc, nor, may be found, in some ancient 



380 SYNTAX [Chap. 

authors, employed in the sense of o, or, or in that of c, and ; 
as: 

Quanto di l^ij)arlai ni tcrissi. | How much I tailed and wrote of 

Pkt. S. I her. 

Grammarians, in general, consider the 72t\ as thus used, to have 
the sense of o, while some say that it is used instead of e. The 
question, however, is one of little importance 3 for this dubious 
employment of the word occurs but rarely. 



« 



XXIV.] OF ADVERBS, &C. 381 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

Syn'TAX of Adverbs, Prepositions, and 
Conjunctions. 

302. A GREAT many of the words which belong to these 
three parts of speech have been given in hsts, under the head 
of" Etymology y for which see Paragraphs 69, 70, and 71. 
Little can be said, as far as regards principle or rule, about the 
Syntax of these words. Prepositions and conjunctions are sub- 
ject to no change in their endings to make them accord with 
other parts of speech; and adverbs are so subject in a few 
cases only, and in such cases are, in fact to be looked upon, 
not as adverhSj but as adjectives. The Syntax of these 
three classes of words has, of necessity, been partly treated of 
already : that of Adverbs, as relating to the comparison of ad- 
jectives and the modes and times of vei^Js, for which see Para^ 
graphs 157, 187, and 228 j that of Prepositions, as relating 
to compound nouns, the modes of verbs, and the governing of 
Cases, for which see Paragraphs 114, 184, 277 ; that of Con- 
junctions, as jelating to the modes of verbs, for which see 
Paragraph 187. The negatives, also, treated of in a separate 
Chapter (see Paragraph 290), consist of adverbs and conjunc- 
tions. A right use of these parts of speech is very important ; 
they are words of great consequence in every language ; but, 
the far greater part of the cases in which languages differ from 
one another as respects these words, are cases of mere idiom, 
or peculiar modes of expression, for which practice alone is 
the authority, and in which principle has nothing to do. I 
will not, therefore, so far assume the province of the maker of 
a dictionary or vocabulary, as to undertake to point out all the 



382 SYNTAX [Cliap. 

Tarious senses in uhicli adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions 
are employed. At the same time, some few observations 
will be necessary in this place ; and in making these, I shall 
notice, as respects each part of speech, such instances of dif- 
ference between the two languages as appear to me the most 
remarkable. 

\st. Of Adverbs. 

303. In speaking of the comp^arison of adjectives (see Par- 
agraph 157) I have already noticed the adverbs piit, more, 
menOy less, vicglio, better, and peggio, worse. Under the 
head of adjectives, also (see Paragraph 178), are noticed the 
words SI or cos), so, as ; come, as, so ; and also the words, 

moHo,mncM, verj', in a great deijree. 
pocn, little, »u>t very, in a small deeree. 
(juauto, how much, how, in what degree. 
tanto, \ 

or > 80 much, or so, in such a degree. 
cotavto, J 

ah^unnlo, some, in a certain depree. 
altrettanto, as rouc'n, ns, in a like degree. 
trojipo, too much, too, io too great a degree. 

It should be well observed, that, in the former sense, these are 
all adjectives, when used in which capacity they must agree 
by their termination, in gender and number, with the noun or 
pronoun to which they 'relate ; while, in the latter sense, they 
are merely what are called adverbs of degree, and, as such, 
never undergo any change. Molta fatica, much trouble, molte 
fatiche, many troubles, mold uomini, many men, poca gene- 
rosita, little generosity, poche donne. Jew women, pochi fiumi, 
few rivers ; and so on with the rest, as adjectives. But, we 
must not say, le cases ono molte alte, the houses are very high ; 
ella b poca generosa, she is not very generous; but, molto 
alte, poco generosa ; because, the molto and poco only serve 
here to modify the sense of the adjectives, alte, generosa, and 
ought not to be made to agree, either in gender or number, 
with the case and ella. In some old writers, we see these ad- 
verbs molto, poco, quanto, &c. made to agree, as if adjectives, 
with the noun or pronoun ; but such language is both ungram- 
matical and out of use. 



XXIV.J 



OF ADVERBS. 



383 



304. In addition to the above, there are a few Italian ad- 
Terbs which are sometinnes used adjectively, and, when so used, 
are made to agree in their terminations with nouns and pro- 
noims in gender and number. Such are the words, 



caro, dear, or clearly. 

rado, rare, or rarely. 

mezzo, mid, or half. 

spesso, frequent, or frequently. 

presto, quick, or quickly. 

subilo, immediate, or immediately. 



alto, high, or highly. 
basso, low, or lowly. 
piano, smooth, or smoothly. 
tQsto, quick, or quickly. 
tarda, late. 
dirilio, straight. 



For example, to use these as adjectives: 



Ella mi ^ molto cara, 

E una cosa rada, 

Un n6mo di mezza eta,' 

Gli ho parlato spesse volte, 

Una presta risoluzione,' 

Una morte sitbitoy 

Una voce alia, ' 

Un u6mo di bassa n£scita, 

Le tavole sono piane, 

Una via tosta, 

L' ora t tarda. 

La strada e diritta, 



Then, again, as adverbs : 



Vi costeri caro, 
Questo m' accade di rado, 
Egli ^ mezzo briico, 
L' ho vediito spesso, 
Andatevi presto, ^ 
Andro subito, 
Parlate piano, 
Veniamo tosto, 
Siamo tornati tnrdo, 
\a.6o diritto, acasa, 
Vol cantdte alto, 
Noi cantiamo basso, 



She is very dear to me. 

Jt is a rare thing. 

A man of middle age. 

I have spoken to him often times. 

A quick resolution. 

A sudden death. 

A high voice. 

A man of low birth. 

The tables are smooth. 

A 7iear way. 

The hour is late. 

The road is straight. 



It will cost you dearly. 

This ravfhj happens to me. 

He is half tipsy. 

I have seen him frequently. 

Go there quickly. 

I will go immediately. 

Speak softly. 

We come soon. 

We returned late. 

I am going straight home. 

You sing high. 

We sing low. 



305. Besides these, there might be examples given of other 
words which, like some of the above cited, are, properly speak- 
ing, adjectives, but which are sometimes used as adverbs, and, 
as such, always retain the original termination. Forte, strong, 
is used in the sense of molto, much, instead of fortemente, 
strongly ; as, temo forte, I fear much. The adjectives chiaro, 
clear, dolce, sweet, schietto, free, sodo, firm, sommesso, sub- 
missive, sanoy healthy, dpertOy open, giusto, just ; these are 



384 SYNTAX [Chap. 

frequently used adverbially, instead of the adverbs, chiara- 
mcnte, dolcemhitej sc/iictcunhite, sodamcnte, sommesiamvnte 
sanamaitCj npertamcnle, giustamcnie. 

The words vicinOj near, and loJitano, distant, may be con- 
sidered both as adjectives ?nd as adverbs, and may, accordingly, 
be either made to agree with the noun or pronoun in termina- 
tion, or otherwise. As: la mia casa e vicina, or vicino, alia 
vostra, my house is near yours ; le mie case sono lontane, or 
lontano, dalle vostre, my houses are far from yours. 

The word solo represents our word alone, as used in the 

, sense of the adverbs solamente or sultanto, only. But solo is 

always an adjective, and must always agree with the noun or 

pronoun in gender and number; and, in Italian, this word 

generally precedes the noun to which it relates ; as : 

Ma sola uua paura mi molisla, &c. | But one fear alone troubles me. 

Abi. U. F. 



La sola morte ■pub metier fine a' miei | Death only can put an end to my 

mali. SoA. N. I grievances. 

Teme le so/« Zf^ji, e non gU u6mini. I He fears the laws only, and not men. 

Bzc.D. B P. I ^ 

306. The -orord ecco is one of great use in Italian. It is 
worth noticing, if it be only to show the difficulty that there is 
in bringing some words under any thing like classification. 
Ecco means, originally, behold, from the Latin ecce. But it 
very often includes the meaning of the verbs to see and to 
look, though it is, of itself, a bare interjection : ecco qui ! look 
here! ecco U! look there! When joined with the personal 
pronouns mi, ti, lo, la, &c. it expresses the sense both of the 
adverbs here and there, and of the verb to be : eccomij here 
I am ; eccolo, there he is ; eccola, there she is. 

2d. Of Prepositions. 
DI. 

307. This preposition is very commonly used in the sense of 
da, from, in speaking of removal from a place ; as, partire di 
Roma, to depart yrom Rome, venire di Londra, to come from 
London, tornare di Parigi, to return/row Paris ; instead of da 



XXIV.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 385 

Jloma, da Londra, da Pari^i. Some condemn this use oi di ; 
but practice admits it. Observe, also, the following : 



La Rola, e'l sonno, e I'oziose piume, 
Uauno deZmondo ogni virtCi sbandita. 

Pet. S. 



quella 



Che trae 1' uom dtl sepolcro e'n vitail 

[serba. 
Pfff. T. 



Luxury, laziness, and the slothful bed, 
have banished every virtue from 
the world. 

She who draws man from the tomb 
and keeps him alive. 



Cacciataavea il sole dtl cielo gia ogni [ The sun had already chased every star 
Stella. ' Boc. D. I /row the heavens. 

There are some grammarians who say that the use of di, in 
such cases as these, is admissible ; others, again, hold it to be 
ungrammatical, and say that it should be dal mondo, dal 
sepolcro, dal cielo. A great number of examples similar to the 
above might be cited, and those, too, from the best writers. 

308. Di is sometimes prefixed to certain adjectives and 
nouns, in which case the preposition and adjective or noun 
combined have the force of an adverb ; as, di rado, di nuovOf 
di certo, di siihito, di necessity, di nascosto, di leggiero ; 
instead of radamente^ rarely; nuovamente, newly; certa- 
mente, certainly ; subifamente, suddenly ; necessariamente, 
necessarily ; nascostamente, secretly ; leggiermente, easily. 

309. Di is often equivalent to our in and with-, as: abbon- 
dante di ricchezze, abounding in riches; lucente <ii gemme, 
glittering with gems ; piccolo di persona, small in person ; 
coperto di frondi ; covered with leaves ; vi rassomigliano di 
cbraggio, they resemble you in courage ; che faremo di questo 
denaro ? what shall we do with this money ? 

A. 

310. With the verbs farej to make or cause, and lasciare, 
to leave or allow, this preposition is often used as in the fol- 
lowing examples : 

Ne so gia dir se senta am6re ; so ben I Nor can I say if shefeel love ; 1 know 
Ch' a molti il fa sentire. Gua. P. F. 1 well that she makes many feel it. 



Lodito Dio, che fa god^re alia Fran- 
^ cia un re di tanto zelo e pieta. 

Ben. L. 



Blessed be God, who causes France 
to possess a king of so much zeal 
and pi«ty. 



386 



SYNTAX 



[Cliap. 



Efe seniir gli iproni a Bri(;1iadoro. 

Ari.(>. F. 

Fatt\\ a cinsriin chc mi acciisn dire 
quando e duve io gli tagliai labor»a. 

Boc. D. 

Luca laiciuva al tutto governdre oc;ni 
cosa a lui. Mac. 1>. 



And he made Brigliadoro feel the 
.•'I)urs. 

Make each one who accuses me tell 
you when and where I cut his 
purse. 

Lucn left every thing to be goremed 
entirely by him. 



Some grammarians tell us, that in such instances as these, the 
a is used in tlie sense of da, by. But this is certainly errone- 
ous. The a, as here used, has no other tiian its original mean- 
ing, namely, the same as that of our to. Translate the sen- 
tences literally, and they will be thus : she causes to many to 
feel, "who causes to France to possess, he caused to Brigliadoro 
to feel, cause to each one to tell you, huca left every thing io 
him to govern. We sometimes find the a used in nearly the 
same manner with the verbs vcdere, to see; udire, to hear; 
and sentire, to feel or hear; as: 



Vedcndosi gualdre o quegli. 



Boc. D. 



Udtndo a molti commendare la Cris- 
liana fede. Boc. D. 

Scntirono alia donna dirgli villania. 

Boc. D. 



Seeing themselves watched by those 
persons. 

Hearing the Christian faith praised 
by many. 

They heard abuse said to him by the 
woman. 



Literally, in the Italian, to those persons, to many, to the 
woman ; that is, meaning that these acts of seeing and hearing 
have the persons, the many, and the woman, for their objects, 
and that the senses of sight and hearing are directed towards^ 
or applied in relation to, those objects. 



DA. 

311. Da, prefixed to the personal pronouns, me, te, lui, lei, 
not, voi, lorOf means the same as to the house of, in speaking 
of going to a person's house ; as : 



Venite da me, 
Vengo da tot, 
Souo tornati da lui, 



Come to my house. 

I come to your house. 

They are returned to bis bouse. 



When, also, it is prefixed to a possessive pronoun, or to a noun, 
da has the same meaning ; as : 



XXIV.] 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



387 



Vado da mio padre, 
"Vengono dal loro amicoj 
Vanno dnl conte. 



I am going to my father's. 
They come to their friend's. 
They are going to the count's. 



312. Ba, following the verb avere, to have, and coming 
before the infinitive of another verb, expresses obligation or 
necessity; as: 



Ho da torn are, 
Avete da rispondere, 
Hanno da parldre, 
Avevo molto da fare, 



I must return. 
You have got to reply. 
They have got to speak. 
I had much to io. 



313. It expresses, also, ia m^iny cdises, siiffici€ncy,JitnesSj 
2iad resemblance ^ as: 



Abbiamo testimonio da provarlo. 

Parole da ammolir un cor di sasso, 

Ha un paldzzo da re, 
Vestito da contadino, 
Parla da galantuomo, 



We have evidence sufficient to 

prove it. 
Words enough to soften the heart 

of a stone. 
He has a palace fit for a king. 
Dressed like a countryman. 
He speaks like a gentleman. 



314. When two nouns are used together, as is the case with 
•what we call compound nouns, or a noun and a verb, the one 
intended to express, adjectively. some quality or capacity in the 
other, the Italians use da ; as in these examples : 



Scatola dn tobacco, 
Fiasco da vino, 
Sala da mangiare, 



Snuff-box. 

Wine-flask. 

Dining-room. 



315. Da has the sense of our word about , in speaking of 
numbers; as: 



Da venti, 

Da cinque cento, 



About twenfy. 
About five hundred. 



316, Da, prefixed to the pronouns me, te, se, &c. means 
the same as of oneself or one's oiun accord ; as : 

L'ho fatto da me, \ I have done it of my onn accord* 

Da se cominci5 a dirme, | Of himself he begaa to tell me. 



s2 



388 SYNTAX [Chap. 



N 



3d. Of Conjunctions. 
• « 

317. As NE has the sense both of our nor and neither ^ go 
has o that of our or and cither • as : 

Ai di lui ni: di lei molto mi fldo. I Neither in him nor in ber Lave I 

Pet. S. I miicl) faith. 

O con il favor del pi^polo, o rnn il I Either with the fnvonr of the people 
lavor de' grandi. Mac. T. I or with the favour of the great. 

The words ne and o are subject to be joined with certain 
other words, the two words together forming a conjunction ; in 
the followii)g manner : 



'» 



nt pure or neppure, I ^^ ^^^ „^j ^^,^^^ 

7iC nnche, or nraurhef "^ 

vi, maruo, or neindnco, 

o sin, or ossia, "j 

o vero, or orvdro, I or, or else. 

opur€,OToppure, ^ 

318. E, which represents our ajid, is often used in the sense 
of both or as well ; as: 

Prepardtevi dunque ed al viiggio, I Prepare yourself, then, both for the 

Ed alia pugna, f a!la vitt6ria ancora. I journey, and for battle, and for Tic« 

Tas. G. L. ' torj' also. 



XXV.] 



OF EXPLETIVES. 



389 



CHAPTER XXV. 



Of THE Words called Expletives. 



319. These are thus called, from the Latin expleo, which 
means, literally, to over -Jill -, so that an expletive is a word, 
the using of which makes a sentence more full of words than 
what is necessary. The most remarkable, by far, of the Ita- 
lian Expletives, are the little pronouns, twz, ti, sif cz, vij ne. 
For example : 



lo medesimo nonso quel ch' io mi voglio. 

Pet. S. 

Perche, ovanque i' mi sia, io sono Amore. 

Tas, a. 

Non so dir bene ancora, s' io mi sia in 
Italia, iu Fiancia. Ben. L. 

Am6r,che meco albuon tempo ti stavi, &c. 

Pet. S. 

Dal palagio s' usci, e fuggisf a casa sua, 

Boc.D. 



Tra queste ella si stava &c. 



GuA. p. F. 



Voinon sapete cio che vol vi dite. 

Boc.D. 

Hi questi esempi ne sono piene le is- 
torie. Mac. P. 

Di questa materia se ne potrebbero dare 
infinite esempi. Mac. P. 



I myself do not know what I (mej 
want. 

For, wherever I (me) may be, I am 
Lore. 

I cannot well say yet, whether I (me) 
am yet iu Italy, or in France. 

Thou, love, who wast (thee) with me 
in prosperous times. 

He went (himself) out of the palace, 

and fled (himself) to his own house. 

Amongst these she (herself) stood. 



You do not know what you say (your- 
self). 

Of these examples histories are full 
(of them). 

Of this matter one might give infi- 
nite examples (of it).. 



Other personal pronouns, also, are sometimes unnecessarily 
employed after a noun, when the noun of itself would be suffi- 
cient ; as : 



Questo meccanismn io I' ho o?ser- 
Tato in tutte le miecomposizioni. 

Alf. V. 



This mechanism I have observed (itj 
in all my compositions. 



390 SYKTAX [Chap: 

320, The CO, joinrd to the pronouns me, tc, se, is an unne- 
cessary' repetition of the preposition con : con nicvo, with me ; 
con tcco, with thee; con scco, with him, or her; instead of, 
con me, or mcco, &c. as in the following : 



i miei figlia6li, ch' eran on | My sons, who were will) me. 



jHcco, &c. Dan. In. 

Spero avtr asiai di buon tempo con i I hope to have a pleasant time enough 
teco. Hoc. D. I with thee. 

£ con teco menu la sua bella donna. | And he took with him his handsome 

Boc. D. I wi/e. 

321. The pronoun esso, coming between the preposition con 
and another personal pronoun, is an expletive ; as, con esso luiy 
vith him ; instead of con esso, or, con lux, 

322. The pronoun egli, when used impersonally in the 
sense of our it, is said to be an expletive, since there is no 
necessity to express the it ; as : egli e troppo vero, it is too 
true; egli e un' ora, it is one o'clock; instead of, c troppo vero, 
h un'ora, using the verb, simply, without any pronoun at all. 

323. Besides the foregoing, there are certain other words 
•which I generally find noticed in grammars as being expletives 
namely : beiie, well ; hello, fine ; tutto, all, or quite ; mai, ever, 
or never; ^zV/, already, exactly, or indeed; poz, then ; pure, 
yet, however, or even ; mica, not, or not at all ; via, away. 
For examples as to the various senses in which these words are 
employed, we may look to the dictionary. It cannot be said 
that these words are devoid of meaning, or that they are wnne- 
cessarily employed, in any instance; they, like many similar 
terms, in our language, always assist in conveying some sense 
which would be incomplete without them ; and they ought not, 
therefore, properly speaking, to be called expletives. 



XXVI.] or COLLOCATION. 391 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Of Collocation. 

324. Collocation, as a term in Syntax, means the placing 
of words in sentences, or the situation in which they stand 
with regard to one another, merely as relates to locality or 
place. In this respect, the Italian is often very different from 
our language, as the reader cannot hut observe before he have 
arrived at the present chapter. I notice this matter here, as 
being one of those to which the learner will have to pay atten- 
tion. But it is a thing that admits of hardly any explana* 
tion ; for it is one independent of rules or principles. We saj', 
/ luill speak to you : the Italians say, vi palerb (that is, to 
you I will speak). We say, / will send him to you : the 
Italians say, ve lo mandero (that is, to you him I luill send). 
The placing of the verb, in relation to its nominative, is the 
instance in which the two languages differ mostly. Take the 
following for examples : 
\ 

E fabbricata questa casa in un sito j This house is built in a lofty situa- 
eminente. Ben. L. I tion. 

Mostra Senofonte nella sua vita di 
Ciio questa necessita dello ingan- 
»are. Mac.D. 

Cacciata uvea il sole del cielo gia ogni i The sun had already chased every star 
^^^''«- ^ Boc. D. I from the heavens. 

Era tumultuario e confuso il modo del I The mode of consultation was tumult- 
ccusultare. Dav. S. 1 uous and confused. 

This, in Italian, is very much a matter of choice. We have 
not such room for choosing in our language : to say, is built this 
house, meaning, this house is built, would not do at all ; yet, 
in Italian, either of these manners may be adopted. It is in 



Zenophon shows in his life of Cyras 
this necessity of deceiving. 



392 SYNTAX. 

t 

poctr}', more especially, tliat the Italian collocation differs from 
that of our lan^^uage ; for, here, the Italian is sometimes as 
crooked as the Latin language, 'vvhen com{)ared to our own. 
Our poets have a considerable license allowed them as to col- 
location, but nothing like the same which the Italians have. 



Non riconofceri si <\'\ leggicro 
Vcaere madre me, buo figlio Amore. 

Tas. a . 



Venus, my mother, will not so easily 
recognise me, her son Love. 



If we give these words the same order in the translation that 
they have in the original, the sentence will be thus: nnt will 
recognise so easily Venus mother me, her son Love. This is 
always a source of some puzzling to the beginner ; but we 
must consider, at the same time, that the language is all the 
more powerful and harmonious in proportion as it admits of the 
transposition of words, and, consequently, that it is so much 
the better worth the labour which the study of it requires. 



THE END. 



Printea by Milli, Jowett, and Mills, Bolt-court, Fleet-street. 



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